Abnormal tyrosine metabolism in chronic cluster headache

Transition of cluster headache: Depicting side-changing attacks as a chronic trait in an interview-based follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Cluster headache presents in an episodic and chronic form, between which patients can convert during the course of disease. We aimed to quantify the rate of cluster headache patients changing phenotype within one and five years and investigate the earlier proposed association between chronification and having side-shifting attacks.

METHODS

In total, 430 cluster headache patients well-characterized according to current International Classification of Headache Disorders criteria, who were all participants in a prior transition-study, were re-interviewed in an observational, retrospective, cross-sectional follow-up study design at the Danish Headache Center.

RESULTS

The transition rate for the whole cohort was 6.5% within one year and 19.8% within five years. The risk of becoming chronic if episodic was 4.0% within one year and 12.3% within five years. For conversion from chronic to episodic, the corresponding risk was 11.1% and 25.0%, respectively. Alterations in attack-side were reported in 32% of all chronic patients, generating an odds ratio of 2.24 of being chronic as opposed to episodic if experiencing side-shifting attacks.

CONCLUSIONS

A higher transition rate since the original cross-sectional study demonstrates cluster headache as a non-static condition. Identifying a risk of transition within one and five years, based on current phenotype along with high odds of being chronic when experiencing a shift of attack-side, offers a valuable clinical compass in the dialogue with the patient.

Simultaneous mass spectrometric quantification of trace amines, their precursors and metabolites

OBJECTIVES

Trace amines are powerful neuromodulators influencing the release and reuptake of catecholamines. These low concentrated endogenous amines impact mood, cognition, and hormone regulation. Dysregulation of trace amines have been associated with a variety of diseases, such as schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, migraine, depression and more. Succesfull simultaneous quantification of trace amines, their precursors and metabolites would benefit both research and patient care. Since these compounds have various functional groups and are present in biological matrices with large concentration difference, their simultaneous quantification is an analytical challenge. Our goal was to develop a highly sensitive LC-MS/MS assay to simultaneously quantify trace amines, their precursors and metabolites in plasma.

METHODS

Our method is based on a simple two-step in-matrix derivatization protocol: propionic anhydride (PA) and 3-Ethyl-1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]carbodiimide (EDC) in combination with 2,2,2-trifluoroethylamine (TFEA) followed by online solid phase extraction combined with LC-MS/MS. Fifteen metabolites can be measured simultaneously, three precursors, eight trace amines and four metabolites. Validation of this method was performed according to international validation guidelines. The pre-analytical stability of trace amines was assessed.

RESULTS

This novel method was successful in quantifying trace amines, their precursors, and metabolites in plasma. Using just 50 µl human plasma, we were able to accomplish limit of quantification for 2-phenylethylamine and N-methyl-phenylethylamine of 0.2 nmol/L and 0.1 nmol/L for tyramine and n-methyltyramine. Inter-and intra-assay imprecision was < 15 % for all analytes. Stability assessment showed susceptibility of certain trace amines e.g. 2-phenylethylamine and N-methyl-phenylethylamine to enzymatic degradation in plasma. The addition of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor pargyline to plasma prevented this enzymatic degradation.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed a novel LC-MS/MS method that1) uses a new double derivatization technique, 2) is automated with online SPE, 3) uses far less sample volume then previous methods and 4) detects more components in the same sample (eight trace amines, three precursors, and four metabolites) with high specificity and selectivity. Furthermore, addition of MAO A/B inhibitor prevents degradation and guarantees more accurate quantification of trace amines.

Biomarkers in cluster headache: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To systematically investigate previously examined biomarkers in blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, tear fluid, and saliva of patients with cluster headache.

BACKGROUND

Cluster headache is a condition with extensive clinical challenges in terms of diagnosis and treatment. Identification of a biomarker with diagnostic implications or as a potential treatment target is highly warranted.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review including peer reviewed full text of studies that measured biochemical compounds in either blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, tear fluid, or saliva of patients with cluster headache diagnosed after the implementation of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (1988) written in English, Danish, Swedish, or Norwegian. Inclusion required a minimum of five participants. The search was conducted in PubMed and EMBASE, in September 2022, and extracted data were screened by two authors. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines for reporting systematic reviews were followed. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the risk of bias in case-controlled studies.

RESULTS

We included 40 studies involving 832 patients with cluster headache and 872 controls, evaluating 80 potential biomarkers. The risk of bias for case-controlled studies was a median of 6 (range: 3-8) and 20 studies out of 40 (50%) were of fair or good quality. Most studies were identified within three groups: hypothalamic-regulated hormones, inflammatory markers, and neuropeptides. Among the hypothalamic hormones, cortisol was the most frequently investigated (N = 7) and was elevated in cluster headache in most of the studies. The most frequently examined inflammatory marker was interleukin 1 (N = 3), but findings were divergent. Calcitonin gene-related peptide was the most investigated neuropeptide (N = 9) and all studies found increased levels during attacks.

CONCLUSION

Biomarker findings have been inconsistent and widely non-specific for cluster headache, which explains why none of the previous studies succeeded in identifying a unique biomarker for cluster headache, but instead contributed to substantiating the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms. Several of the examined biomarkers could hold promise as markers for disease activity but are unfit for a clear distinction from both controls and other headaches.

Mesocorticolimbic system abnormalities in chronic cluster headache patients: A neural signature?

BACKGROUND

Converging evidence suggests that anatomical and functional mesocorticolimbic abnormalities support the chronicization of pain disorders.

METHODS

We mapped structural and functional alterations of the mesocorticolimbic system in a sample of chronic cluster headache patients (n = 28) in comparison to age and sex-matched healthy individuals (n = 28) employing structural MRI and resting-state functional MRI.

RESULTS

Univariate logistic regression models showed that several of the examined structures/areas (i.e., the bilateral nucleus accumbens, ventral diencephalon, hippocampus, and frontal pole, and the right amygdala) differentiated chronic cluster headache patients from healthy individuals (p < 0.05, uncorrected). Specifically, all the significant structures/areas had increased volumes in chronic cluster headache patients compared to healthy individuals. The examination of the groups suffering from left and right-sided cranial attacks showed a lateralization effect: ipsilateral to the pain ventral diencephalic regions and contralateral to the pain nucleus accumbens discriminated chronic cluster headache patients from healthy individuals. The resting-state functional MRI data analyses showed that chronic cluster headache patients compared to CTRL individuals present robust reduced functional connectivity in the right frontal pole-right amygdala pathway (p < 0.05, FDR-corrected).

CONCLUSION

Our results showed that chronic cluster headache patients present anatomical and functional maladaptation of the mesocorticolimbic system, with functional data indicating a possible prefrontal areas' failure to modulate the mesolimbic structures. These results were opposite to what we hypothesized based on the previous literature on chronic pain conditions.Future studies should assess whether the observed mesocorticolimbic abnormalities are due to the neuroprotective effects of the assumed medications, or to the frequent comorbidity of CH with neuropsychiatric disorders or if they are a genuine neural signature of CH and/or chronic cluster headache condition.

Network meta-analysis of therapies for cluster headache: Effects of acute therapies for episodic and chronic cluster

OBJECTIVE

We used network meta-analysis (NMA) to characterize the relative effectiveness and harms of acute treatment options for cluster headache.

BACKGROUND

There are few evidence-based acute treatments available for cluster headache. As most treatments were compared only against placebos in clinical trials, few head-to-head comparisons of treatments are available.

METHODS

An a priori registered scoping review was performed to identify randomized controlled trials evaluating treatments in adult patients (>18 years old) with cluster headache per accepted diagnostic criteria. Bayesian NMAs were performed to compare treatments in terms of headache relief at 15 or 30 min, and also the occurrence of adverse events. We report odds ratios (ORs) of relative treatment effects along with corresponding 95% credible intervals (CrIs), as well as measures of treatment ranking.

RESULTS

A total of 13 randomized controlled trials informed NMAs. We found high flow oxygen to be the most effective therapy for headache response at 15 and 30 min (OR 9.0, 95% CrI 5.3 to 15.9 vs. placebo), with injectable sumatriptan demonstrating the next highest effect (OR 6.4, 95% CrI 3.75 to 11.1 vs. placebo). High flow oxygen was also more effective than low flow oxygen (OR 2.55, 95% CrI 1.13 to 5.8), nasal spray zolmitriptan (OR 3.75, 95% CrI 1.72 to 8.4), octreotide (OR 4.5, 95% CrI 1.64 to 12.5), and non-invasive vagal nerve stimulation (nVNS; OR 5.2, 95% CrI 2.29 to 11.9). Sumatriptan injectable was also effective for headache relief and was found to be better than nasal spray zolmitriptan (OR 2.67, 95% CrI 1.21 to 5.9), octreotide (OR 3.20, 95% CrI 1.17 to 8.8), and nVNS (OR 3.69, 95% CrI 1.63 to 8.4). Octreotide (OR 4.1, 95% CrI 1.71 to 10.5) and sumatriptan (OR 2.40, 95% CrI 1.39 to 4.2) were associated with greater risk of adverse events compared to placebo, while other treatments did not demonstrate increased risk. When focusing on patients with episodic cluster headache, nVNS was significantly better than placebo (OR 4.9, 95% CrI 1.89 to 14.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that high flow oxygen is more efficacious when compared to low flow oxygen for headache relief. When low flow oxygen fails in patients who can tolerate oxygen, increased flow rates should be tried. Additionally, high flow oxygen is likely more effective than zolmitriptan nasal spray, nVNS, and octreotide. Sumatriptan injectable is more likely to be effective when compared to zolmitriptan nasal spray, octreotide, and nVNS.

Pain Sensitivity in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: A Narrative Review of Recent Work

Many patients with schizophrenia seem relatively immune to physical pain while others complain of constant pain. This may result from disturbances or alterations of the sensory threshold for pain in populations with psychosis, a possibility for which there is some preliminary evidence. The inconsistency in pain perception may, in part, be explained by the treatments patients receive, but treatment-naïve patients also exhibit differences in response to pain. This suggests that decreased pain sensitivity may represent a specific psychosis endophenotype. Thus far, few experimental studies have investigated sensory thresholds, pain modalities, or other factors contributing to the perception or expression of physical pain in psychosis. A digital search for information on this topic was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar. The result is a non-systematic, narrative review focusing on recent clinical and experimental findings of pain sensitivity in patients with psychosis. Importantly, physical and mental pain are closely connected constructs that may be difficult to differentiate. Our hope is that the review provides some clarity to the field in the specific context of schizophrenia.

Pathogenesis of Cluster Headache: From Episodic to Chronic Form, the Role of Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators

OBJECTIVE

To describe the role of biochemical anomalies of tyrosine (TYR), tryptophan (TRP), and arginine (ARG) metabolism in patients suffering from episodic and chronic cluster headache (CCH).

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of cluster headache (CH) and the process that transforms the episodic into the chronic form are unknown. However, the accompanying symptoms suggest a dysfunction of the sympathetic system and hypothalamus along with anomalies of metabolism of catecholamines, elusive amines, and nitric oxide (NO) metabolism.

METHODS

We describe the results obtained from the last papers published on this issue. The level of metabolites were analyzed by different high-performance liquid chromatography methods.

RESULTS

In both episodic and CH patients, the levels of dopamine and elusive amines are very elevated. The only biochemical difference found in studies between episodic and chronic cluster was that norepinephrine levels were significantly lower in episodic cluster in comparison to control and chronic subjects. In addition, the levels of ARG, homoarginine, and citrulline, precursors of synthesis of NO, were significantly lower in chronic cluster.

CONCLUSIONS

All these results suggest that TYR, TRP, and ARG metabolism is abnormal and may constitute a biochemical fingerprint of CH patients. The increased levels of norepinephrine in chronic cluster constitute a possible cause of chronicity of this primary headache. The high levels of tryptamine and its activity on the central serotoninergic system may explain why the length of CH is brief in comparison to migraine and tension-type headache. The low levels of ARG, homoarginine, and citrulline may be the consequence of high circulating levels of α₁ -agonists, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, and their biochemical interaction with endothelial trace amine-associated receptor 1 that induces activation of NO synthase, resulting in NO synthesis in the circulation, NO release, intense vasodilation, and as a result, the cluster attack.

Differential mechanisms of action of the trace amines octopamine, synephrine and tyramine on the porcine coronary and mesenteric artery

Trace amines such as p-tyramine, p-octopamine and p-synephrine are found in low concentrations in animals and plants. Consumption of pre-workout supplements containing these plant-derived amines has been associated with cardiovascular side effects. The aim of this study was to determine the mechanisms of action of these trace amines on porcine isolated coronary and mesenteric arteries. Noradrenaline caused contraction of mesenteric arteries and relaxation of coronary arteries. In both tissues, all three trace amines induced contractions with similar potencies and responses were unaffected by the β-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol (1 µM), the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NNA (100 µM), or the TAAR-1 antagonist, EPPTB (100 nM). However, the contractile responses of mesenteric arteries, but not coronary arteries, were significantly reduced by depletion of endogenous noradrenaline. Mesenteric responses to all three amines were abolished in the presence of prazosin (1 µM) whereas residual contractile responses remained in the coronary artery which were inhibited by a high concentration (100 µM) of EPPTB. The results suggest complex responses of the coronary artery to the trace amines, with activity at α₁-adrenoceptors and potentially TAARs other than TAAR-1. In contrast the actions of the amines on the mesenteric artery appeared to involve indirect sympathomimetic actions and direct actions on α₁-adrenoceptors.

The role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the pathogenesis of cluster headache: a review

The pathogenesis underlying cluster headache remains an unresolved issue. Although both the autonomic system and the hypothalamus play a central role, the modality of their involvement remains largely unknown. It is, also, unknown why the duration of the pain attacks is so brief and why their onset and termination are abrupt and extremely painful. This review summarizes the evidence to date accumulated in favor of a possible role of anomalies in the metabolism of tyrosine, tryptophan, and arginine in these unresolved issues.

Differential efficacy of non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation for the acute treatment of episodic and chronic cluster headache: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Two randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trials (ACT1, ACT2) evaluated non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation (nVNS) as acute treatment for cluster headache. We analyzed pooled ACT1/ACT2 data to increase statistical power and gain insight into the differential efficacy of nVNS in episodic and chronic cluster headache.

METHODS

Data extracted from ACT1 and ACT2 were pooled using a fixed-effects model. Main outcome measures were the primary endpoints of each study. This was the proportion of participants whose first treated attack improved from moderate (2), severe (3), or very severe (4) pain intensity to mild (1) or nil (0) for ACT1 and the proportion of treated attacks whose pain intensity improved from 2-4 to 0 for ACT2.

RESULTS

The pooled population included 225 participants (episodic: n = 112; chronic: n = 113) from ACT1 (n = 133) and ACT2 (n = 92) in the nVNS (n = 108) and sham (n = 117) groups. Interaction was shown between treatment group and cluster headache subtype (p < 0.05). nVNS was superior to sham in episodic but not chronic cluster headache (both endpoints p < 0.01). Only four patients discontinued the studies due to adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

nVNS is a well-tolerated and effective acute treatment for episodic cluster headache.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The studies were registered at clinicaltrials.gov (ACT1: NCT01792817; ACT2: NCT01958125).

Update on the pathophysiology of cluster headache: imaging and neuropeptide studies

OBJECTIVE

Cluster headache (CH) is the most severe primary headache condition. Its pathophysiology is multifaceted and incompletely understood. This review brings together the latest neuroimaging and neuropeptide evidence on the pathophysiology of CH.

METHODS

A review of the literature was conducted by searching PubMed and Web of Science. The search was conducted using the following keywords: imaging studies, voxel-based morphometry, diffusion-tensor imaging, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging, tractography, connectivity, cerebral networks, neuromodulation, central modulation, deep brain stimulation, orexin-A, orexin-B, tract-based spatial statistics, single-photon emission computer tomography studies, positron-emission tomography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, trigeminovascular system, neuropeptides, calcitonin gene-related peptide, neurokinin A, substance P, nitric oxide synthase, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, neuropeptide Y, acetylcholine, noradrenaline, and ATP. "Cluster headache" was combined with each keyword for more relevant results. All irrelevant and duplicated records were excluded. Search dates were from October 1976 to May 2018.

RESULTS

Neuroimaging studies support the role of the hypothalamus in CH, as well as other brain areas involved in the pain matrix. Activation of the trigeminovascular system and the release of neuropeptides play an important role in CH pathophysiology. Among neuropeptides, calcitonin gene-related peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide have been reported to be reliable biomarkers for CH attacks, though not specific for CH. Several other neuropeptides are involved in trigeminovascular activation, but the current evidence does not qualify them as reliable biomarkers in CH.

CONCLUSION

CH has a complex pathophysiology and the pain mechanism is not completely understood. Recent neuroimaging studies have provided insight into the functional and structural network bases of CH pathophysiology. Although there has been important progress in neuropeptide studies, a specific biomarker for CH is yet to be found.

Non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of cluster headache: early UK clinical experience

Background

Evidence supports the use of non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation (nVNS; gammaCore®) as a promising therapeutic option for patients with cluster headache (CH). We conducted this audit of real-world data from patients with CH, the majority of whom were treatment refractory, to explore early UK clinical experience with nVNS used acutely, preventively, or both.

Methods

We retrospectively analysed data from 30 patients with CH (29 chronic, 1 episodic) who submitted individual funding requests for nVNS to the National Health Service. All patients had responded to adjunctive nVNS therapy during an evaluation period (typical duration, 3–6 months). Data collected from patient interviews, treatment diaries, and physician notes were summarised with descriptive statistics. Paired t tests were used to examine statistical significance.

Results

The mean (SD) CH attack frequency decreased from 26.6 (17.1) attacks/wk. before initiation of nVNS therapy to 9.5 (11.0) attacks/wk. (P < 0.01) afterward. Mean (SD) attack duration decreased from 51.9 (36.7) minutes to 29.4 (28.5) minutes (P < 0.01), and mean (SD) attack severity (rated on a 10-point scale) decreased from 7.8 (2.3) to 6.0 (2.6) (P < 0.01). Use of abortive treatments also decreased. Favourable changes in the use of preventive medication were also observed. No serious device-related adverse events were reported.

Conclusions

Significant decreases in attack frequency, severity, and duration were observed in these patients with CH who did not respond to or were intolerant of multiple preventive and/or acute treatments. These real-world findings complement evidence from clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy and safety of nVNS in CH.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s10194-018-0936-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Linking Cigarette Smoking/Tobacco Exposure and Cluster Headache: A Pathogenesis Theory

INTRODUCTION

To propose a hypothesis theory to establish a linkage between cigarette smoking and cluster headache pathogenesis.

BACKGROUND

Cluster headache is a primary headache syndrome grouped under the trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. What distinguishes cluster headache from all other primary headache conditions is its inherent connection to cigarette smoking. It is undeniable that tobacco exposure is in some manner related to cluster headache. The connection to tobacco exposure for cluster headache is so strong that even if an individual sufferer never smoked, then that individual typically had significant secondary smoke exposure as a child from parental smoking behavior and in many instances both scenarios exist. The manner by which cigarette smoking is connected to cluster headache pathogenesis is unknown at present. If this could be determined this may contribute to advancing our understanding of cluster headache pathophysiology.

METHODS/RESULTS

Hypothesis statement.

CONCLUSION

The hypothesis theory will include several principles: (1) the need of double lifetime tobacco exposure, (2) that cadmium is possibly the primary agent in cigarette smoke that leads to hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis toxicity promoting cluster headache, (3) that the estrogenization of the brain and its specific sexually dimorphic nuclei is necessary to develop cluster headache with tobacco exposure, and (4) that the chronic effects of smoking and its toxic metabolites including cadmium and nicotine on the cortex are contributing to the morphometric and orexin alterations that have been previously attributed to the primary headache disorder itself.

Analysis of metabolic profiles of generalized aggressive periodontitis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The specific pathogenesis of generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAgP) has not yet been clarified, and few studies have focused on the association between GAgP and metabolomics. To elucidate the roles of metabolic profiles in the status of GAgP, this study aimed to identify the differential metabolic profiles between patients with GAgP and healthy controls using an untargeted metabolomic profiling method.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Serum and gingival crevicular fluid samples were collected from healthy controls (n = 20) and patients with GAgP (n = 20) in this cross-sectional study. The relative levels of biomarkers in the samples were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Principal components analysis and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis were used for statistical analysis. Metabolites were analysed qualitatively using the FiehnLib and NIST databases. Full-mouth probing depth and clinical attachment loss were recorded as indexes of periodontal disease.

RESULTS

A total of 349 metabolites were qualitatively detected in the gingival crevicular fluid samples, and 200 metabolites were detected in the serum samples. Compared with healthy controls, patients with GAgP showed significant increases in serum urea and allo-inositol levels. In contrast, glutathione, 2,5-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, adipic acid and 2-deoxyguanosine levels were decreased in patients with GAgP. In the gingival crevicular fluid samples, noradrenaline, uridine, α-tocopherol, dehydroascorbic acid, xanthine, galactose, glucose-1-phosphate and ribulose-5-phosphate levels were increased in patients with GAgP, while thymidine, glutathione and ribose-5-phosphate levels were decreased.

CONCLUSION

The metabolomics analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is an effective and minimally non-invasive way to differentiate the metabolites characteristic of patients with GAgP. Both serum and gingival crevicular fluid metabolomics are significantly different between patients with GAgP and healthy controls. These metabolic profiles have great potential in detecting GAgP and helping to understand its underlying mechanisms.

Deep brain stimulation for trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias

Introduction: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the posterior hypothalamic region (pHyr) has been shown to be efficacious for more than a half of patients suffering from trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs); nonetheless, controversies about the mechanisms of action and the actual site of stimulation have arisen in recent years.Areas covered: Firstly, a review of the most recent literature on the subject is presented, stressing the critical points that could, in the future, make a difference for optimal management of patients afflicted by these life-threating diseases. Hypothalamic functional anatomy, experimental data and pathophysiological hypotheses are reported.Expert commentary: About 32% of patients who underwent DBS for TACs are pain-free. The determination of the pHyr region seems to be crucial for the generation of pain attack in these pathologies, although other structures are involved in complex mechanisms and circuits that interact with each other. Neurophysiological data, combined with more advanced experimental models, are of primary importance regarding our understanding of what the real target is, and how to overcome the issue of refractory patients.

Defective functional connectivity between posterior hypothalamus and regions of the diencephalic-mesencephalic junction in chronic cluster headache

OBJECTIVE

We tested the hypothesis of a defective functional connectivity between the posterior hypothalamus and diencephalic-mesencephalic regions in chronic cluster headache based on: a) clinical and neuro-endocrinological findings in cluster headache patients; b) neuroimaging findings during cluster headache attacks; c) neuroimaging findings in drug-refractory chronic cluster headache patients improved after successful deep brain stimulation.

METHODS

Resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging, associated with a seed-based approach, was employed to investigate the functional connectivity of the posterior hypothalamus in chronic cluster headache patients (n = 17) compared to age and sex-matched healthy subjects (n = 16). Random-effect analyses were performed to study differences between patients and controls in ipsilateral and contralateral-to-the-pain posterior hypothalamus functional connectivity.

RESULTS

Cluster headache patients showed an increased functional connectivity between the ipsilateral posterior hypothalamus and a number of diencephalic-mesencephalic structures, comprising ventral tegmental area, dorsal nuclei of raphe, and bilateral substantia nigra, sub-thalamic nucleus, and red nucleus ( p < 0.005 FDR-corrected vs . control group). No difference between patients and controls was found comparing the contralateral hypothalami.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed deranged functional connectivity between the posterior ipsilateral hypothalamus and diencephalic-mesencephalic regions in chronic cluster headache patients mainly involves structures that are part of (i.e. ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra) or modulate (dorsal nuclei of raphe, sub-thalamic nucleus) the midbrain dopaminergic systems. The midbrain dopaminergic systems could play a role in cluster headache pathophysiology and in particular in the chronicization process. Future studies are needed to better clarify if this finding is specific to cluster headache or if it represents an unspecific response to chronic pain.

Genetic and biochemical changes of the serotonergic system in migraine pathobiology

Migraine is a brain disorder characterized by a piercing headache which affects one side of the head, located mainly at the temples and in the area around the eye. Migraine imparts substantial suffering to the family in addition to the sufferer, particularly as it affects three times more women than men and is most prevalent between the ages of 25 and 45, the years of child rearing. Migraine typically occurs in individuals with a genetic predisposition and is aggravated by specific environmental triggers. Attempts to study the biochemistry of migraine began as early as the 1960s and were primarily directed at serotonin metabolism after an increase of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), the main metabolite of serotonin was observed in urine of migraineurs. Genetic and biochemical studies have primarily focused on the neurotransmitter serotonin, considering receptor binding, transport and synthesis of serotonin and have investigated serotonergic mediators including enzymes, receptors as well as intermediary metabolites. These studies have been mainly assayed in blood, CSF and urine as the most accessible fluids. More recently PET imaging technology integrated with a metabolomics and a systems biology platform are being applied to study serotonergic biology. The general trend observed is that migraine patients have alterations of neurotransmitter metabolism detected in biological fluids with different biochemistry from controls, however the interpretation of the biological significance of these peripheral changes is unresolved. In this review we present the biology of the serotonergic system and metabolic routes for serotonin and discuss results of biochemical studies with regard to alterations in serotonin in brain, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, platelets, plasma and urine of migraine patients.

Calcitonin gene-related peptide antagonism and cluster headache: an emerging new treatment

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a key signaling molecule involved in migraine pathophysiology. Efficacy of CGRP monoclonal antibodies and antagonists in migraine treatment has fueled an increasing interest in the prospect of treating cluster headache (CH) with CGRP antagonism. The exact role of CGRP and its mechanism of action in CH have not been fully clarified. A search for original studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published in English was performed in PubMed and in ClinicalTrials.gov . The search term used was "cluster headache and calcitonin gene related peptide" and "primary headaches and calcitonin gene related peptide." Reference lists of identified articles were also searched for additional relevant papers. Human experimental studies have reported elevated plasma CGRP levels during both spontaneous and glyceryl trinitrate-induced cluster attacks. CGRP may play an important role in cluster headache pathophysiology. More refined human studies are warranted with regard to assay validation and using larger sample sizes. The results from RCTs may reveal the therapeutic potential of CGRP monoclonal antibodies and antagonists for cluster headache treatment.

Advances in the understanding of cluster headache

INTRODUCTION

Cluster headache is the worst primary headache form; it occurs in paroxysmal excruciatingly severe unilateral head pain attacks usually grouped in cluster periods. The familial occurrence of the disease indicates a genetic component but a gene abnormality is yet to be disclosed. Activation of trigeminal afferents and cranial parasympathetic efferents, the so-called trigemino-parasympathetic reflex, can explain pain and accompanying oculo-facial autonomic phenomena. In particular, pain in cluster headache is attributed, at least in part, to the increased CGRP plasma levels released by activated trigeminal system. Posterior hypothalamus was hypothesized to be the cluster generator activating the trigemino-parasympathetic reflex. Efficacy of monoclonal antibodies against CRGP is under investigation in randomized clinical trials. Areas covered: This paper will focus on main findings contributing to consider cluster headache as a neurovascular disorder with an origin from within the brain. Expert commentary: Accumulated evidence with hypothalamic stimulation in cluster headache patients indicate that posterior hypothalamus terminates rather than triggers the attacks. More extensive studies on the genetics of cluster headache are necessary to disclose anomalies behind the increased familial risk of the disease. Results from ongoing clinical trials in cluster headache sufferers using monoclonal antibodies against CGRP will open soon a new era.