Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by challenges in social interaction and communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. The importance of early detection of ASD and subsequent early intervention is well documented. Efforts have been made over the years to clarify ASD diagnostic criteria and develop predictive, accurate screening tools and evidence-based, standardized diagnostic instruments to aid in the identification of ASD. In this article, we review the most recent changes in ASD diagnostic criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision, summarize evidence-based instruments for ASD screening and diagnostic evaluations as well as the assessment of co-occurring conditions in ASD, the impact of COVID-19 on ASD assessment, and directions for future research in the field of ASD assessment.

Associations of Pre- and Postnatal Air Pollution Exposures with Child Behavioral Problems and Cognitive Performance: A U.S. Multi-Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Population studies support the adverse associations of air pollution exposures with child behavioral functioning and cognitive performance, but few studies have used spatiotemporally resolved pollutant assessments.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated these associations using more refined exposure assessments in 1,967 mother-child dyads from three U.S. pregnancy cohorts in six cities in the ECHO-PATHWAYS Consortium.

METHODS

Pre- and postnatal nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM) ≤2.5μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) exposures were derived from an advanced spatiotemporal model. Child behavior was reported as Total Problems raw score using the Child Behavior Checklist at age 4-6 y. Child cognition was assessed using cohort-specific cognitive performance scales and quantified as the Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ). We fitted multivariate linear regression models that were adjusted for sociodemographic, behavioral, and psychological factors to estimate associations per 2-unit increase in pollutant in each exposure window and examined modification by child sex. Identified critical windows were further verified by distributed lag models (DLMs).

RESULTS

Mean NO2 and PM2.5 ranged from 8.4 to 9.0 ppb and 8.4 to 9.1 μg/m3, respectively, across pre- and postnatal windows. Average child Total Problems score and IQ were 22.7 [standard deviation (SD): 18.5] and 102.6 (SD: 15.3), respectively. Children with higher prenatal NO2 exposures were likely to have more behavioral problems [β: 1.24; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.39, 2.08; per 2 ppb NO2], particularly NO2 in the first and second trimester. Each 2-μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 at age 2-4 y was associated with a 3.59 unit (95% CI: 0.35, 6.84) higher Total Problems score and a 2.63 point (95% CI: -5.08, -0.17) lower IQ. The associations between PM2.5 and Total Problems score were generally stronger in girls. Most predefined windows identified were not confirmed by DLMs.

DISCUSSION

Our study extends earlier findings that have raised concerns about impaired behavioral functioning and cognitive performance in children exposed to NO2 and PM2.5 in utero and in early life. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10248.

Cognitive ability and risk aversion: A systematic review and meta analysis

Are highly intelligent people less risk averse? Over the last two decades scholars have argued the existence of a negative relationship between cognitive ability and risk aversion. Although numerous studies support this, the link between cognitive ability and risk aversion has not been found consistently. To shed new light on this topic, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted. A total of 97 studies were identified and included for meta-analysis in the domain of gains (N=90, 723), 41 in the mixed domain (N=50, 936), and 12 in the domain of losses (N=4, 544). Results indicate that there exists a weak, but significant negative relationship between cognitive ability and risk aversion in the domain of gains. However, no relationship was observed in the mixed domain or in the domain of losses. Several meta-regressions were performed to investigate the influence of moderator variables. None of the moderator variables were found to consistently influence the relationship between cognitive ability and risk aversion across the domain of gains, mixed and losses. Moreover, no significant difference was observed between males and females across all three domains. In conclusion, this systematic review and meta-analysis provides new evidence that the relationship between cognitive ability and risk aversion is domain specific and not as strong as suggested by some previous studies.

Construct Validity of the WISC-V in Clinical Cases: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses of the 10 Primary Subtests

Independent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) research with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V) standardization sample has failed to provide support for the five group factors proposed by the publisher, but there have been no independent examinations of the WISC-V structure among clinical samples. The present study examined the latent structure of the 10 WISC-V primary subtests with a large (N = 2,512), bifurcated clinical sample (EFA, n = 1,256; CFA, n = 1,256). EFA did not support five factors as there were no salient subtest factor pattern coefficients on the fifth extracted factor. EFA indicated a four-factor model resembling the WISC-IV with a dominant general factor. A bifactor model with four group factors was supported by CFA as suggested by EFA. Variance estimates from both EFA and CFA found that the general intelligence factor dominated subtest variance and omega-hierarchical coefficients supported interpretation of the general intelligence factor. In both EFA and CFA, group factors explained small portions of common variance and produced low omega-hierarchical subscale coefficients, indicating that the group factors were of poor interpretive value.

Investigating the Theoretical Structure of the Differential Ability Scales—Second Edition Through Hierarchical Exploratory Factor Analysis

When the Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition (DAS-II) was developed, the instrument’s content, structure, and theoretical orientation were amended. Despite these changes, the Technical Handbook did not report results from exploratory factor analytic investigations, and confirmatory factor analyses were implemented using selected subtests across the normative age groups from the total battery. To address these omissions, the present study investigated the theoretical structure of the DAS-II using principal axis factoring followed by the Schmid–Leiman procedure with participants from the 5- to 8-year-old age range to determine the degree to which the DAS-II theoretical structure proposed in the Technical Handbook could be replicated. Unlike other age ranges investigated where at most 14 subtests were administered, the entire DAS-II battery was normed on participants aged 5 to 8 years, making it well suited to test the full instrument’s alignment with theory. Results suggested a six-factor solution that was essentially consistent with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC)-based theoretical structure suggested by the test publisher and simple structure was attained. The only exception involved two subtests (Picture Similarities and Early Number Concepts) that did not saliently load on a group factor. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Comparison of intelligence quotients of first- and second-generation deaf children with cochlear implants

Hearing impairment is a common type of sensory loss in children. Studies indicate that children with hearing impairment are deficient in social, cognitive and communication skills. This study compared the intelligence quotients of first- and second-generation deaf children with cochlear implants. This research is causal-comparative. All 15 deaf children investigated had deaf parents and were selected from Baqiyatallah Cochlear Implant Center. The 15 children with cochlear implants were paired with similar children with hearing parents using purposive sampling. The findings show that the Hotelling trace of multivariate analysis of variance (F = 6.78, p < 0.01, η_P² = 0.73) was significant. The tests of between-subjects effects for second-generation children was significantly higher than for first-generation children for all intelligence scales except knowledge. It can be assumed that second-generation children joined their family in the use of sign language as the primary experience before a cochlear implant. The use of sign language before cochlear implants is recommended.

Investigating the Structure of the WJ-III Cognitive in Early School Age Through Two Exploratory Bifactor Analysis Procedures

Two exploratory bifactor methods (e.g., Schmid–Leiman [SL] and exploratory bifactor analysis [EBFA]) were used to investigate the structure of the Woodcock–Johnson III (WJ-III) Cognitive in early school age (age 6-8). The SL procedure is recognized by factor analysts as a preferred method for EBFA. Jennrich and Bentler recently developed an alternative EBFA procedure. They claim that EBFA more readily produces independent cluster structure and overcomes the proportionality constraint experienced by the SL. The results of both analyses support the preeminence of the g factor at age 6 to 8. Examination of omega coefficients, the divergent factor structure, and the small amount of variance accounted for by the lower order factors suggests caution when interpreting beyond the higher order factor. Implications for interpretation of the WJ-III Cognitive at age 6 to 8 are discussed.

Exploratory Bifactor Analysis of the WJ-III Cognitive in Adulthood via the Schmid–Leiman Procedure

The Woodcock–Johnson-III cognitive in the adult time period (age 20 to 90 plus) was analyzed using exploratory bifactor analysis via the Schmid–Leiman orthogonalization procedure. The results of this study suggested possible overfactoring, a different factor structure from that posited in the Technical Manual and a lack of invariance across both age ranges under study. Even when forcing the seven-factor fit, the structure was problematic. The results from the 20 to 39 age group displayed patterns of convergence with and divergence from the Technical Manual’s structure. The results from the 40 and above age group were generally consistent with the Technical Manual’s structure except for retrieval fluency. This study is consistent with the body of exploratory factor analysis structural validity evidence suggesting that contemporary tests of cognitive ability, particularly those based on Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory, are overfactored and lack alignment with their respective Technical Manual’s presented structure.

Construction of a Memory Battery for Computerized Administration, Using Item-Response Theory

In accordance with Item Response Theory, a computer memory battery with six tests was constructed for use in the Portuguese adult population. A factor analysis was conducted to assess the internal structure of the tests ( N = 547 undergraduate students). According to the literature, several confirmatory factor models were evaluated. Results showed better fit of a model with two independent latent variables corresponding to verbal and non-verbal factors, reproducing the initial battery organization. Internal consistency reliability for the six tests were α = .72 to .89. IRT analyses (Rasch and partial credit models) yielded good Infit and Outfit measures and high precision for parameter estimation. The potential utility of these memory tasks for psychological research and practice will be discussed.

An Exploratory Investigation of the Factor Structure of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS)

This study investigated the factor structure of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) using rigorous exploratory factor analytic and factor extraction procedures. The results of this study indicate that the RIAS is a single factor test. Despite these results, higher order factor analysis using the Schmid—Leiman procedure indicates that all subtests are aligned with their theoretically consistent factors. All analyses in this study, including the minimum average partial test, parallel analysis, the Schmid—Leiman procedure, as well as principal factors with orthogonal and oblique rotation, support interpretation at the composite intelligence index level and suggest caution when moving to interpretation at the verbal and nonverbal index levels. The memory subtests should continue to be separated from the main IQ battery because of poor g-loadings and contribution to cross loadings of the intelligence subtests. Interpretation at the subtest level should be eschewed.