"You Blame Me, Therefore I Blame Me": The Importance of First Disclosure Partner Responses on Trauma-Related Cognitions and Distress

Blame others but hurt yourself: blaming or sympathetic attitudes toward victims of COVID-19 and how it alters one's health status

OBJECTIVE

This study explored the relationship between blame/sympathy and blamer's/sympathizer's perceived health status.

DESIGN

We recruited participants via an online survey platform. Study 1 was a cross-sectional study using data (N = 3304, Mage = 28.22, SDage = 7.92, and 39.3% female) collected from 30 provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions of China on February 3, 2020. Study 2 used the daily diary method collecting data from February 4 to 9, 2020. Sample (N = 2456, Mage = 28.49, SDage = 7.49, and 39.4% were female) was obtained by inviting participants in Study 1 on the same platform.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Self-reported health status and life satisfaction.

RESULTS

In Study 1, blame was negatively associated with perceived health status, while sympathy was positively associated with it. Negative emotions and risk perception are the underlying mechanisms, but neither of them has effects on the relationship between sympathy and perceived health status. Study 2 replicated these results using multilevel analysis.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the importance of people's attitudes on perceived health status. While sympathy is positively related to perceived health status, blaming has a negative association with perceived health status. Negative emotions and risk perceptions are the underlying mechanisms.

Exploring the Experiences of Sexual Violence/Abuse Survivors Attending a Recovery Group: A Qualitative Study of Recovery and Evaluation Implications

Sexual violence/abuse (SV/A) is increasingly recognized requiring improved, evidence-based treatments. Delivery of group-based support in survivor services is common but often lacks evaluation. This qualitative study explored how survivors experienced groups and wanted recovery measured. Semistructured interviews with survivors of SV/A from two groups (N = 13, female: 25-64 years: mainly White British, heterosexual) were analyzed using an inductive approach to thematic analysis. Three overarching themes were identified including "anger," recovery "in the company of" others and "different destinations." The work contributes recognition of the need for evaluation with meaning to survivors and the potential for anger to be used in group activism.

Disclosure of Sexual Victimization: Effects of Invalidation and Shame on Re-Disclosure

Research on disclosure of sexual victimization has consistently demonstrated that the act of disclosure and the disclosure recipient have a synergistic effect in facilitating either positive or negative post-assault outcomes. While negative judgments such as victim blame have been argued to serve a silencing function, experimental investigations of this claim are lacking. The current study investigated whether invalidating feedback in response to self-disclosure of a personally distressing event produced feelings of shame, and whether shame influenced subsequent decisions around re-disclosure. Feedback type (validating, invalidating, no feedback) was manipulated in a sample of 142 college students. Results partially supported the hypothesis that shame resulted from invalidation, however shame was better predicted by individual perceptions of invalidation than the experimental manipulation. Although few participants opted to make changes to the content of their narrative for re-disclosure, those who did had higher levels of state shame. Results suggest that shame may be the affective mechanism by which invalidating judgments silence victims of sexual violence. The present study also supports the distinction previously made between Restore and Protect motivations in managing this shame. This study provides experimental support for the notion that an aversion to being shamed, communicated via an individual's perception of emotional invalidation, features in judgments of re-disclosure. Perceptions of invalidation, however, vary individually. Professionals working with victims of sexual violence should be mindful of the importance of shame attenuation in facilitating and encouraging disclosure.

Supporting student learning and development through trauma-informed campuses

Many students come to higher education with a history of trauma. College life may also expose students to traumatizing events. While the past decade has witnessed greater discussion of trauma-informed frameworks, it has not regularly been applied to the college environment. We advance the concept of a trauma-informed campus, where administrators, faculty, staff, and students from diverse disciplines create an environment that recognizes the widespread nature of trauma, integrates knowledge about trauma into practices and procedures, and minimizes further re-traumatization for all community members. A trauma-informed campus is prepared for students' past or future traumatic experiences, while also recognizing and responding to structural and historical harms. In addition, it recognizes the role of the surrounding community challenges, particularly how violence, substance use, hunger, poverty, and housing insecurity may contribute to further trauma or negatively impact healing. We use an ecological model to frame and shape the construct of trauma-informed campuses.

The Impact of Victim Blaming and Locus of Control on Mental Health Outcomes Among Female Sexual Assault Survivors

To elucidate individual differences in sexual assault survivor outcomes, we examined locus of control as a moderator of the relationship between victim blaming and both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and unhealthy alcohol use. The sample consisted of 82 female sexual assault survivors who had disclosed their victimization to at least one person. The results of this survey demonstrated that locus of control did not moderate the relationship between victim blaming and PTSD, or the relationship between victim blaming and unhealthy alcohol use. The findings further supported the direct relationship between victim blaming and a range of negative mental health outcomes among survivors.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

Are Survivors of Sexual Assault Blamed More Than Victims of Other Crimes?

Although victim blaming in the context of sexual assault is often emphasized, little research has compared rates of victim blaming following sexual assault relative to other forms of victimization. This research investigated whether there is a crime-specific bias toward blaming victims of sexual assault. Victim blaming was assessed via different methods from the observer perspective in vignette-based studies, as well as survivors' accounts of social reactions they received. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate how much the survivor was to blame in three vignettes, each with a different randomized crime outcome: rape, physical assault, or theft. Study 2 assessed blame for a vignette that either ended in rape or theft, via a causal attribution statement. Study 3 asked interpersonal trauma survivors who had experienced at least two forms of victimization (i.e., sexual assault, physical assault, or theft) to report the social reactions they received following disclosure of each of these crimes. Across all three studies, victim blaming occurred following multiple forms of victimization and there was no evidence of a particular bias toward blaming survivors of sexual assault more so than other crimes. However, results of Study 3 highlight that, following sexual assault, survivors receive more silencing and stigmatizing reactions than they experienced after other crimes. Interpersonal traumas (i.e., sexual or physical assault) also resulted in more egocentric responses compared to theft. Altogether, there does not appear to be a crime-specific bias for victim blaming; however, crime-specific bias is apparent for some other, potentially understudied, social reactions. Implications of these findings highlight the value of victim blaming education and prevention efforts through trauma-informed services and outreach following victimization. Furthermore, service providers and advocates might especially seek to recognize and prevent silencing and stigmatizing reactions following sexual assault disclosures.

Predictors of Disclosure Recipients' Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Dating and Sexual Violence: A Longitudinal Study of College Students

Dating violence (DV) and sexual violence (SV) are pernicious issues among college students that lead to deleterious outcomes, which are more likely when victims receive more negative social reactions (e.g., blaming the victim) and fewer positive social reactions to disclosure (e.g., providing emotional support). Most research studies have examined victims' reports of social reactions to their assault disclosures, with only a few cross-sectional studies of predictors of disclosure recipients' provision of positive and negative social reactions to victims. The purpose of the current study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 481 college students (76.4% women, 89.2% White/Non-Hispanic) who reported being a disclosure recipient during the past six months (measured at Time 2 to cross-sectionally and longitudinally predict their social reactions to victims' disclosures). Results suggested that both victim and disclosure recipient characteristics (e.g., gender, race), disclosure recipient perceptions of victims (e.g., empathy for victim, blame of victim, victims' coping) and both disclosure recipient and victim behavior at the time of disclosure (e.g., drinking, distress) were related to disclosure recipient social reactions. These findings underscore the need for programs for potential informal disclosure recipients that target psychological variables (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder) and behavior at the time of disclosure, as well as their perceptions of victims more generally, in addition to improving their knowledge and ability to respond with positive social reactions and avoid negative social reactions.

Characteristics of Disclosing Childhood Victimization and Risk of Revictimization in Young Adulthood

Experiencing victimization in childhood increases risk of adulthood revictimization, and it is important to understand what may contribute to such risk. One factor that may help to explain the increased risk of future victimization is disclosure. However, the literature is mixed as to whether disclosure of prior victimization is helpful for protecting against adverse outcomes, and much of the research on disclosure focuses solely on sexual victimization. The current study examines the relationship between various forms of childhood and adulthood victimization and whether disclosure moderates this relationship. In addition, this study investigates whether characteristics of disclosure are associated with revictimization risk. The sample included 275 undergraduates (M age = 19.52 years; 75.6% female, 77.5% non-Hispanic White or Caucasian). Participants reported on previous history of various forms of childhood and adulthood victimization. They also reported whether or not they had disclosed childhood victimization, and, if so, characteristics related to disclosure. Results revealed that number of childhood victimization experiences significantly predicted number of adulthood victimization experiences, and nearly every type of childhood victimization significantly increased risk of experiencing each type of adulthood victimization. Disclosure did not moderate the relationship between childhood and adulthood victimization. Participants who disclosed were more likely to disclose crime and peer/sibling victimization and disclose to parents or friends. Positive reactions to disclosure were more common than negative reactions; however, 75% of disclosers received at least one negative reaction. Finally, revictimized individuals received more overall negative reactions than nonrevictimized individuals. They also received more reactions characterized by the person they disclosed to trying to take control of their decisions or treating them differently. Results highlight the importance of examining relationships between various forms of victimization, considering how characteristics of disclosure relate to risk of revictimization, and the importance of educating potential support networks about appropriate responses to disclosure.

To Harm and Heal: Digital Disclosure and Support-Seeking for IPV Victims

Technology is used both to harm and assist people in romantic relationships. For intimate partner violence (IPV) victims, online forums, social media, and digital resources are used to cope with and/or seek support. What remains unknown is the extent to which in-person and digital abuse experiences affect victims’ subsequent preferences for and likelihood of using such channels to reveal and get help for their IPV. This study explored how abuse types and victims’ personal and relational characteristics affected preferences for and reported use of technology-mediated-disclosure and -support-seeking. Quantitative self-reports of IPV victims (N = 495; 157 men and 338 women) indicated sought target and media type (in-person or online, sex-specific or co-ed groups, open or closed digital platforms, professional- or lay-managed resources) each varied according to multiple personal (age, sex) and IPV-specific (physical, psychological, and digital abuse) factors; technological experiences; and disclosure and support-seeking practices and preferences of victims. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for digital wellness policies and practices.

A Bruise Without a Name: Investigating College Student Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Terminology

When it comes to intimate partner violence, words matter. The abuse terminology used in efforts to target collegiate victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) can impact the effectiveness of prevention messages. The purpose of this study is twofold: first, to identify the relationship between abuse labels (such as domestic violence, dating violence, and IPV), and bystander intervention recommendations. Second, this study aims to understand how situational factors (perpetrator gender, couple marital status, provocation) impact the perceived appropriateness of those terms. Perceptions of severity, victim/perpetrator blame, and bystander intervention recommendations were also measured. In all, 498 college students from a large southern public university participated in a 2 × 2 × 2 experiment where they read a vignette depicting IPV. Participants were then asked a serious of questions about the appropriateness of the abuse terminology, what actions they would recommend for a bystander, the severity of the incident, and the degree to which they blamed victim and perpetrator. Results indicated the bystander intervention actions that are perceived as appropriate are related to what the most appropriate label is for the situation. Contextual factors surrounding the IPV situation, such as perpetrator gender, couple marital status, and provocation, influenced bystander recommendations and what labels were considered appropriate. The results of the study indicate the need to expand collegiate definition of what "counts" as IPV and point to ways in which IPV context can be a barrier to bystander intervention. Implications of the study argue that efforts to increase bystander intervention must include training on how to identify IPV situations with a broad variety of contexts. Limitations of the study and implications for theory and practice are discussed.

"Like Opening Up Old Wounds": Conceptualizing Intersectional Trauma Among Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence

Despite increasing acknowledgment of intimate partner violence (IPV) as a potentially traumatic experience, there is a gap in research investigating women's perspectives of trauma related to their experiences of IPV from an intersectional lens. Intersectionality, which illuminates interconnected inequalities due to constructions of race, gender, sexuality, class, and culture, is particularly important for exploring the broader contexts of women's experiences of IPV and trauma. In response to this dearth in research, this paper presents qualitative findings from a constructivist grounded theory study of 15 women's experiences of IPV and trauma. To conceptualize IPV-related trauma from an intersectional lens, this study addressed the following research questions: (a) How do women who have experienced IPV understand and view trauma? (b) What do women who have experienced IPV indicate are experiences of trauma? and (c) How do women's differing identities, experiences of oppression, or other hardships or adversities relate to their experiences of IPV? Through analysis, six distinct themes were identified: (a) changing perceptions of trauma; (b) the pain of trauma; (c) fear, anxiety, and triggers; (d) lasting impact of trauma; (e) struggle for acceptance; and (f) growth and insight. Implications from these findings illustrate the pervasiveness of IPV and other forms of trauma among women who have been abused by a partner, the long-lasting traumatic impacts of IPV, and the multiple experiences of being blamed and not believed that many women have experienced. These findings represent first steps in understanding the relationship between IPV and trauma from the perspectives of women who have survived IPV, offering an important contribution to previous knowledge on IPV. As well, this study provides first steps in understanding the interacting, intersectional effects of multiple forms of adversity, oppression, and IPV, and their relationships to trauma.

Caught by Connections: The Mediating Roles of Social and Community Support after Interpersonal Violence

The purpose of the present study was to examine the potential mediating roles of different sources of social support and sense of community on the relationship between interpersonal violence and mental health outcomes, negative posttraumatic cognitions, and posttraumatic growth. Participants (n = 459) completed an online survey. Interpersonal violence had a significant, direct effect on all posttraumatic outcomes. Support from significant others mediated the relationship between interpersonal violence and posttraumatic stress. Both support from family and a negative sense of community mediated the relationship between interpersonal violence and posttraumatic cognitions, while social support from friends and family and a positive sense of community mediated the relationship between interpersonal violence and posttraumatic growth. The results suggest that posttraumatic distress and growth may be impacted by different connection sources.

They Are Coming Home: The Effect of Trauma-Related Cognitions on Vocational Readiness of Incarcerated Women

The prevalence of trauma in the lives of incarcerated women has been well-documented. Yet, few studies have included trauma-related cognitions, a common response to interpersonal trauma, in their analyses. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between trauma (pre-incarceration trauma [PIT] and incarceration-based trauma [IBT]), trauma-related cognitions [TRC] (i.e., Total; Self, Blame, and World), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity, and vocational readiness-motivation (VR-M) in a random sample of incarcerated women in three prison facilities. A cross-sectional research design was employed using a stratified random sampling procedure. The stratum was housing security levels 1 to 4. The study was conducted in three prisons located in the midwestern region of the United States. Self-administered questionnaires measured PIT, IBT, TRC, PTSD, and VR-M. The study sample included (N = 250) female inmates: 152 White (60.8%), 50 Black (20.4%), 18 Biracial (7.3%), 13 Native American/Pacific Islander (5.3%), and 12 Latina (4.8%) females. The average age of participants was 36.2, and 82.4% were mothers. A key finding in this study was that TRC-Total was best predicted by trauma associated with the prison environment (IBT) and PTSD severity. Our findings indicated that for Black and Latina women, higher levels of trauma-related cognitions about "self" were predictive of a lower potential for vocational readiness in the area of motivation. Future examination of trauma's effect on the development of negative trauma-related cognitions about self (e.g., self as incompetent) has the potential to inform prison mental health practice and the development of clinical interventions to decrease trauma-related cognitions about self for incarcerated women with multiple trauma experiences.

Exploring the association between anticipated and actual responses to disclosures of intimate partner violence and sexual assault

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual assault (SA) commonly disclose their experiences to friends or family members, or within other personal relationships. Disclosure recipients' responses to these disclosures are associated with victims' mental health. Previous research has separately measured both actual responses to IPV/SA and anticipated responses to IPV/SA (e.g., response to a hypothetical scenario) from the perspective of disclosure recipients. Yet, little research has described the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses. The aim of the current paper was to use a prospective design to examine the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses to IPV/SA, including positive and negative social reactions, perceptions of victim responsibility, empathy, and confusion and ineffectiveness about how to respond. Participants (N = 126 college students aged 18-23; 70.6% women) answered questions about their anticipated responses to a hypothetical IPV/SA disclosure scenario, and then six months later answered the same questions about their actual responses to an actual disclosure of IPV/SA. Although most anticipated and actual responses were significantly associated, associations were moderate in size. Some associations were stronger for participants with a closer relationship to the victim, for participants who had their own victimization history, for women, and for men. Individuals can predict their responses to some degree, but are not totally accurate in doing so.

Social Reactions Received by Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: A Qualitative Validation of Key Constructs From the Social Reactions Questionnaire

The majority of intimate partner violence survivors tell at least one person about the abuse, and the reactions of these support providers can have a profound impact on survivors' recovery. In recent years, the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ) has become the predominant measure of social reactions toward intimate partner violence survivors, but the SRQ was developed based on the experiences of sexual assault survivors only. To determine how well intimate partner violence survivors' descriptions of social reactions from informal support providers align with constructs in the SRQ, we examined qualitative interview data about survivors' interactions with informal support providers obtained from a larger study with 113 female survivors of intimate partner violence. Excerpts were coded inductively, and a total of 12 types of social reactions emerged. Seven of these social reactions aligned with existing social reactions in the SRQ: (a) emotional support, (b) tangible aid, (c) blame, (d) took control, (e) treated differently, (f) egocentric reactions, and (g) distraction. An additional six reactions emerged as separate constructs, including (h) minimization, (i) told to leave, (j) advice, (k) interventions, and (l) indifference. These findings highlight the need for direct interventions with friends and family members to improve social reactions toward intimate partner violence survivors.

Exploratory study of imagery rescripting without focusing on early traumatic memories for major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Mental imagery has a more powerful impact on our emotions than thinking in words about the same material. Treating intrusive images with imagery rescripting (IR) has been reported for various disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety disorder, and bipolar disorder. There has been less research about IR as a major depressive disorder (MDD).

AIMS

We examined whether IR without focusing on early traumatic memories is effective in MDD.

METHODS

We enrolled 19 participants with MDD, who received 15 weekly sessions of full CBT, including two sessions for IR of intrusive images and, separately, for memory rescripting. Before and after the IR intervention, participants were asked to rate the intrusive images they experienced against, an intrusion index that included difficulty (interference with daily life), uncontrollability, distress caused by the negative image, and vividness. We recorded the contents of each participant's negative and positive imagery to classify these.

RESULTS

The intrusion index scores decreased after the IR sessions. Negative images experienced by the participants while in a depressive mood were categorized into three different types: blame, social exclusion, and loneliness. The rescripted positive images were categorized into good relations and worthy self (competent self).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that IR of intrusive images without focusing on early traumatic memories may usefully be incorporated into routine CBT sessions for MDD.

Criminal Justice Considerations for Unsubmitted and Untested Sexual Assault Kits: A Review of the Literature and Suggestions for Moving Forward

One of the latest reforms to the criminal justice response to sexual assault involves changes to the submission and testing of sexual assault kits. Across the United States, thousands of kits have either not been submitted to a laboratory or tested by a laboratory, prompting criticisms that victims of sexual assault have not received justice for the crimes perpetrated against them. Jurisdictions across the country have reevaluated their responses to sexual assault, including their investigations and submission and testing of sexual assault kits. It is critical that future efforts respect the recommendations of jurisdictions that have spearheaded earlier reforms and are guided by victim-centered and trauma-informed principles. This article reviews recent research that has been conducted on changes in processing sexual assault kits, provides examples of different approaches to address unsubmitted and untested kits, and suggests ideas for future research and practice to consider as this area moves forward.