Disclosing Sexual Victimization Online and In-Person: An Examination of Bisexual+ and Heterosexual Survivors

Bisexual+ (bisexual, pansexual, queer, attraction to more than one gender) people are at elevated risk for sexual victimization relative to their heterosexual counterparts. Disclosure of sexual victimization and social reactions received upon disclosure can play a major role in recovery following an assault. Using an online survey, the current study examined whether bisexual+ and heterosexual survivors of sexual victimization (N = 657) varied in disclosure of victimization, the type of disclosure (in-person vs. online via #MeToo), and receipt of various social reactions to disclosure in person and online. A chi-square test examined differences in disclosure and differences in types of disclosure (in-person only vs. MeToo across sexual identity). MANOVAS were used to examine whether in-person and online reactions varied across sexual identity. Bisexual+ survivors were more likely to disclose sexual victimization relative to heterosexual survivors. Among those who disclosed, bisexual+ survivors were more likely to disclose in person only whereas heterosexual survivors were more likely to disclose online via #MeToo. Whereas we did not find any significant differences for in-person reactions, we did find significant differences for online social reactions using #MeToo. Heterosexual survivors received higher turning against reactions (e.g., avoided talking to you or spending time with you) and more unsupportive acknowledgment relative to bisexual+ participants. Whereas bisexual+ participants received less turning against reactions and unsupportive acknowledgment during #MeToo/online disclosure, they were also less likely to disclose using #MeToo. Findings suggest that bisexual+ and heterosexual people vary in the way they disclose sexual victimization, and in how they are responded to when disclosing in person and online.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Multiple-Perpetrator Sexual Assault: Do Number of Offenders Matter?

Sexual assault (SA) victimization is a prevalent issue both in the U.S. and globally. Although SA victimization is usually perpetrated by a single-perpetrator, multiple-perpetrator sexual assaults (MPSAs) also occur. Unfortunately, there is less literature concerning MPSAs, including the well-being of survivors' post-assault. One factor that has been shown to be important in the well-being of SA survivors' post-assault are the social reactions survivors receive from others following disclosure. The current study sought to compare social reactions received by MPSA survivors to the social reactions received by single-perpetrator sexual assault (SPSA) survivors in a community sample of adult female SA survivors (N = 1,863). We examined "turning against" (TA) reactions, a type of negative social reaction in which the supporter expresses more overtly distressing reactions that focus blame on the victim. We also examined unsupportive acknowledgment reactions (UA) the second type of negative reaction in which survivors receive acknowledgment that the assault occurred but are not supported. Additionally, we examined differences in positive reactions that survivors received from their support systems. One-way Analysis of Variance showed statistically significant differences in social reactions to disclosure according to number of offenders in the SA, with MPSA survivors receiving more TA and UA negative reactions than SPSA survivors. There were no differences in positive reactions by number of offenders. Multiple regression analyses also revealed that several demographics, assault characteristics, and post-assault factors (total Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, coping, attributions of self-blame) were related to the social reactions received by MPSA survivors post-assault. Implications and recommendations for support providers are discussed.

Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Violence Experienced by Sexual and Gender Minority Young Adults: Comparisons of Sexual and Gender Minority Recipients Versus Cisgender/Heterosexual Recipients

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals are at an increased risk of experiencing sexual violence (SV). Social reactions received upon disclosure of SV impact survivors' mental health, and this may be more extreme when social reactions are provided by other SGM individuals. The purpose of the current study was to understand the SV disclosure experiences of SGM young adults, including the identity of disclosure recipients and the quality of the social reactions received by SGM and cisgender/heterosexual disclosure recipients. Additionally, the current study sought to examine how the SGM identity of the disclosure recipient and the quality of the social reactions received were associated with mental health outcomes (depression, post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD], and alcohol use) among SGM SV survivors. SGM-identifying participants (N = 110) completed a 10-min survey on Qualtrics that was distributed through Prime Panels. Results revealed that 83% of participants (SGM survivors of SV) disclosed their SV experience to other SGM individuals. SGM disclosure recipients provided more positive social reactions and fewer negative social reactions than cisgender/heterosexual disclosure recipients. Regression models indicated that positive social reactions from cisgender/heterosexual recipients were associated with a decrease in depression scores. Negative social reactions from SGM recipients were associated with an increase in depression scores. Unexpectedly, positive social reactions from SGM recipients, while negative social reactions from cisgender/heterosexual recipients, were associated with an increase in PTSD scores. No associations were found between social reactions and alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of social reactions and disclosure experiences on SGM survivors' mental health and mitigation opportunities to improve these disclosure experiences.

Associations Among Online Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization, Coping and Social Isolation

Social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization are critical to post-assault recovery. The popular social media hashtag "#MeToo" resulted in numerous survivors of sexual victimization disclosing their experience online. Whereas previous research has examined the association between social reactions to in-person disclosure of sexual victimization and factors commonly associated with adjustment among survivors - such as coping and social support - research is needed to examine correlates of social reactions to online disclosure of sexual victimization. Accordingly, the current study investigated the relationship between online social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo and engagement in various coping strategies (problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping) and social isolation among a sample of 195 adults with a history of sexual victimization. Results indicated that the provision of online resources was associated with lower use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. Receipt of online emotional and informational support was associated with increased use of emotion-focused coping strategies. Further, receipt of online social reactions that turned against the survivor and receipt of online social reactions that "made fun of you, insulted you, or said something to hurt you" were associated with higher levels of social isolation. Lastly, online unsupportive acknowledgment and "sharing your tweet with other people" were associated with lower levels of social isolation. Results highlight how online social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo intersect with coping and social support among survivors of sexual victimization and help to give context to the experience of online disclosure of sexual victimization.

Making Visible the Myths About Cyber-Sexual Violence Against Women: An Analysis of Social Reactions Toward Victims on Twitter

Cyber-sexual violence is a prevalent and harmful form of aggression committed against women, yet little attention has been paid to the attitudes about cyber-sexual violence. This research therefore aimed to explore the negative attitudes or myths that serve to justify, minimize, and deny the experiences of cyber-sexual violence disclosed by women on Twitter. Using a thematic analysis, we analyzed 4,048 replies to 18 experiences reported on Twitter around the time of the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women. After the data were cleaned and coded, the results revealed 18 myths about cyber-sexual violence, grouped into four main themes: (1) minimization/conceptualization, (2) victim blaming, (3) factors related to the diffusion context, and (4) exonerating the perpetrator's responsibility. This study constitutes the first attempt to analyze the myths surrounding cyber-sexual violence on Twitter, including content areas not yet addressed in the literature, such as contextual factors. Strikingly, most of the analyzed reactions appeared to deny and downplay the importance of sexually aggressive behaviors perpetrated against women online, suggesting that these beliefs could influence the underreporting of cyber-sexual violence. Based on these data, it was concluded that while Twitter can serve as a useful "loudspeaker" for victims, it is also a mechanism by which myths about cyber-sexual violence can be supported and disseminated. Finally, it highlights the importance to consider the influence of online cultural frame on the social perception of cyber-sexual violence and point out the specific beliefs that educators, researches and psychologist could work though psychoeducational programs.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Intimate Partner Stalking and Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors: Associations With PTSD, Academic Outcomes, and Empowerment

Among college survivors of unwanted pursuit behaviors (UPBs; 40.1%, n = 189) or intimate partner stalking (IPS, i.e., UPBs causing emotional distress; 32.1%, n = 151), the present study examined effects of social reactions to disclosures on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, academic outcomes, and personal empowerment. Compared to UPB survivors, IPS survivors were more likely to disclose and reported higher positive and negative reactions to disclosure as well as greater frequency of UPBs/IPS, IPV, and PTSD symptoms. Among both groups, only negative social reactions were positively associated with PTSD symptoms. However, among IPS (but not UPB) survivors, only positive social reactions were related to academic outcomes and empowerment when controlling for PTSD and IPS frequency. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Online Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization via #MeToo and Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Sexual victimization is a major public health concern with significant consequences for survivors, their families, and society at large. Studies examining in-person disclosure of sexual victimization suggest that the way others respond to disclosure has a significant impact on survivors' well-being. With the advent of social media, more survivors are choosing to disclose their experience online. Research is needed to understand how social reactions to online disclosure of sexual victimization impact survivors. Accordingly, the current study examined the association between online social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a sample of 195 individuals who disclosed their experience online via the hashtag #MeToo. Symptoms of PTSD were positively associated with the level of assault severity reported by the survivor, as well as receipt of online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo that made fun, insulted, or said something to hurt the survivor. Online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo that involved turning away from the survivor or providing unsupportive acknowledgment of the experience were unrelated with PTSD symptoms. PTSD symptoms were also not associated with the receipt of positive online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo. Like research addressing in-person social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization, some forms of online negative social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo appear to be associated with worse psychological outcomes among survivors. Thus, online disclosure of sexual victimization and its impact needs to be attended to in clinical and research settings.

College students' perceptions of alcohol's role in disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence

Objective: Much is known about how alcohol increases the risk of sexual assault or intimate partner violence victimization during college. This research qualitatively explores perceptions about how alcohol influences disclosures about these events to informal supports. Participants: Participants included college students who received a disclosure wherein they or the survivor were drinking during the disclosure (n = 81). Methods: Responses were coded with regard to who was drinking and whether the effect of drinking during the disclosure was perceived as positive, negative, mixed, or neutral/none. Results: Participants perceived alcohol to have both positive (e.g., increasing the likelihood of discussing difficult topics) and negative (e.g., cognitive impairment increased negative emotions) effects on disclosures. Conclusion: Prevention and intervention efforts should identify targeted strategies (e.g., remembering one or two easy and helpful phrases; revisiting the topic again while sober) to help survivors and disclosure recipients have constructive conversations in the presence of alcohol.

Social Reactions and Trauma Symptoms Among Gender and Sexual Minority Students Disclosing Sexual Violence

Addressing the higher rates of sexual violence experienced by gender and sexual minority students in university contexts requires an understanding of responses to disclosures of sexual violence. Using data from a large-scale study of sexual violence in university contexts, the current study examined (1) whether gender and sexual minority status was associated with responses to sexual violence disclosure and (2) how disclosure responses were associated with trauma symptoms among these students. Linear regression indicated that university students' (n = 1,464) reports of responses to disclosures of sexual violence did not differ across gender or sexual minority status. Focusing on gender and sexual minority participants (n = 327), linear regression linked turning against the victim and positive responses to higher levels of trauma symptoms.

Women Receive More Positive Reactions to Childhood Sexual Abuse Disclosure and Negative Reactions are Associated With Mental Health Symptoms in Adulthood for Men and Women

Although disclosure of sexual abuse has become more socially acceptable for both men and women in recent years, there is much yet to be understood about differences in the disclosure process and associated pathology between men and women. The current study aimed to (a) investigate differences in aspects of the childhood sexual abuse (CSA) disclosure process between adult men and women and (b) explore how timing of disclosure, perceived parental style, and negative social reactions to disclosure relate to various mental health symptoms. Using a cross-sectional, quasi-experimental design, adult men and women in the United States recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (N = 299) completed self-report surveys. Women reported disclosing to a significantly greater number of people than men, and were more likely to disclose to parents, while men were more likely to tell friends. Results revealed that women reported receiving significantly more positive responses and emotionally supportive responses to their CSA disclosures than men. Negative reactions to disclosure were positively associated with internalizing symptoms and externalizing symptoms, while both negative reactions to disclosure and perceived parental dysfunction were positively associated with substance use symptoms. Results signify a need for resources to aid individuals in supporting survivors of CSA, as reactions have the potential to impact recovery trajectory and for clinicians to consider how disclosure experiences impact survivor cognitions and symptom exacerbation.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

The Feasibility of a Novel Recruitment Protocol for Collecting Survivor Data via Disclosure Recipient Referrals

The current arricle describes a novel recruitment protocol for collecting data from sexual assault and intimate partner violence survivors referred to research studies by individuals to whom they had previously disclosed. Challenges in both recruiting participants and interpreting data are described. Only 35.8% of cases had usable data for both survivors and disclosure recipients, suggesting that this referral method had limited success in recruiting matched pairs. Suggestions for modifications to improve the protocol for future research are offered. Potential advantages and drawbacks of various methods for recruiting dyads are described in order to facilitate future research on survivors' disclosure processes, social reactions, and the influence of social reactions on survivor recovery.

Sexual Victimization Among Men: A Qualitative Analysis of the Twitter Hashtag #UsToo

The present study sought to characterize use of the hashtag #UsToo on Twitter to disclose or comment on men's experiences of sexual victimization. A sample of 281 original content, English-language tweets containing the hashtag were collected from Twitter over five consecutive weekdays. Thematic content analysis was conducted by a three-person coding team (full team consensus, achieving 100% agreement). Researchers categorized tweets as either a disclosure of victimization (N = 6) or a response to this hashtag (N = 275). When responding to the hashtag, users commented on the emotional impact of victimization, provided positive responses within the forum (i.e., advocacy, call to action, raising awareness, and prosocial reactions), and also engaged in negative responses within the forum (i.e., distracting attention away from the experiences of victims, egocentric responses which called attention to themselves or others, and otherwise harmful reactions). Despite the popularity of the #MeToo hashtag to disclose personal experiences of violence victimization, Twitter users were unlikely to utilize the hashtag #UsToo to disclose personal experiences of sexual victimization. Results highlight a divergence between online behavior in response to a call for men's disclosure of sexual victimization using the hashtag #UsToo versus online behavior in response to a call for women's disclosure of sexual victimization using the hashtag #MeToo.

Disclosing Unwanted Pursuit Victimization: Indirect Effects of Negative Reactions on PTSD Symptomatology Among Undergraduate Women

A growing literature has documented that negative social reactions to disclosures of sexual and intimate partner violence (IPV), such as victim blaming or disbelief, can negatively affect survivors' recovery. However, despite growing recognition of the frequency of unwanted pursuit behaviors (UPBs; for example, stalking, excessive or threatening contact) following romantic relationships and their negative effects on survivors, research to date has not explored disclosures, social reactions, or their impacts among victims of UPBs. The purpose of the present study was to assess the frequency of disclosures of UPB victimization to various sources, social reactions received, and their associations with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Among a sample of 318 undergraduate women (ages 18-24) who reported a breakup within the past 3 years, 59.7% (n =190) reported experiencing UPBs. Nearly all of the women (92.6%; n =176) who experienced UPBs disclosed their victimization to others. Among women who disclosed, the most frequent recipient of disclosure was a female friend (93.2%, n = 164) and women reported receiving higher mean positive than negative social reactions (p < .001). Results supported the hypothesized indirect effect of UPB victimization on PTSD symptoms through increases in negative social reactions (p < .001); these results suggest that negative social reactions to UPB victimization may increase the risk for PTSD symptomatology. By contrast, there was no indirect effect via positive social reactions (p = .205). Implications for research and clinical practice will be discussed.

Reappraisal Bias and Sexual Victimization: Testing the Utility of a Computerized Intervention for Negative Post-Assault Support Experiences

Women are at notable risk for negative reactions from others following sexual victimization which serve to intensify negative post-traumatic outcomes. The current study tested the effectiveness of cognitive bias modification-appraisal (CBM-App) training targeting post-traumatic cognitions theorized to be impacted by positive and negative social support with 45 female undergraduates, grouped by experiencing overall positive or negative post-assault support. Whereas all participants experienced improvements in post-traumatic cognitions at 1-week follow-up, a crossover effect for intrusion symptoms was found; CBM-App training reduced intrusions in participants with negative support experiences yet increased intrusions in participants with positive support experiences. While findings highlight the need for careful selection of post-trauma interventions, the study is the first to integrate findings from CBM-App, sexual assault, and social support literature. Socially relevant post-traumatic cognitions appear to be malleable and may be an important focus of treatment for survivors who experienced negative post-assault support.

Communicating a History of Sexual Trauma: Partner Responses to Women's Disclosure

The study aimed to understand how women who experienced sexual trauma but are now in a healthy relationship perceive their partners' responses to their disclosure of sexual trauma. Forty-one women completed an in-depth semi-structured phone interview. Responses were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, identifying two overarching themes and six subthemes. The results provide a voice to the needs and preferences of women who experienced sexual trauma, but are navigating communication in a healthy relationship. Given that most women disclosed their experiences with partners, this sample provides valuable insight for clinicians, interventionists, and partners of survivors to navigate supportive interactions.

Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure: The Role of Posttraumatic Cognitions

Sexual assault can have a detrimental impact on women's mental, physical, sexual, and interpersonal health and well-being. After experiencing sexual assault, 74% to 88% of individuals disclose the assault to someone they trust. After such disclosures, individuals experience both perceived positive and negative reactions. While positive reactions may be protective and aid in recovery, negative reactions can contribute to feelings of self-blame and maladaptive beliefs about the cause of the assault. Previous studies have shown independent associations between social reactions, negative cognitions, and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) following sexual assault. However, prior research has not explored the joint role of social reactions and posttraumatic cognitions in relationship to PTSS and sexual assertiveness. Moreover, the mechanism regarding these associations is not well established. The present study tested a path model of the effects of social reactions (positive and negative) to disclosure of sexual assault on posttraumatic cognitions, PTSS, and sexual assertiveness in college women. It was hypothesized that posttraumatic cognitions would mediate the relationship between social reactions and both sexual assertiveness and PTSS. A total of 102 college women participated in the study and completed measures of Sexual Experiences, Social Reactions, Posttraumatic Cognitions, PTSS, and Sexual Assertiveness. Results indicated that negative social reactions were indirectly associated with sexual assertiveness through posttraumatic cognitions. Social reactions were indirectly associated with PTSS partially through posttraumatic cognitions. Furthermore, there was a direct relationship between negative social reactions and PTSS. Positive social reactions were not significantly associated with outcome variables. Results highlight the influential nature of negative social reactions and posttraumatic cognitions. The importance of educating bystanders on the influence of social reactions is further discussed.

Prospective Predictors of Receiving Disclosures of Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault Among College Students

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has indicated that many undergraduates receive disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) from their peers; however, much of this research has been cross-sectional. The present study assessed the extent to which demographic characteristics and victimization history predicted whether participants received disclosures over the subsequent 6 months. Directional hypotheses assessed whether psychological symptoms and attitudes predicted, or were consequences of, disclosures at follow-up.

METHOD

College students (n = 867) from a broader treatment intervention study completed pretest (Time 1) and 6-month follow-up surveys (Time 2).

RESULTS

Individuals who reported new disclosures at follow-up (56%) were more likely to be women, have previous experience receiving either sexual assault or IPV disclosures, and have experienced sexual assault or IPV victimization in their lifetime and across the follow-up period. Sexual orientation did not predict receipt of disclosures at follow-up; intervention group did not moderate these relationships. Results of longitudinal structural equation models found that although higher Time 1 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and depressive symptoms predicted disclosure status at follow-up, Time 1 disclosure status did not predict subsequent increases in posttraumatic stress disorder and depressive symptoms. Attitudinal variables were not significantly associated with disclosures reported at Time 1 or follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest the importance of attending to personal experiences of victimization within interventions aiming to improve responses to disclosure. Although individuals with higher distress are more likely to receive subsequent disclosures, disclosure does not appear to lead to increases in long-term psychological distress.

Exploring the association between anticipated and actual responses to disclosures of intimate partner violence and sexual assault

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual assault (SA) commonly disclose their experiences to friends or family members, or within other personal relationships. Disclosure recipients' responses to these disclosures are associated with victims' mental health. Previous research has separately measured both actual responses to IPV/SA and anticipated responses to IPV/SA (e.g., response to a hypothetical scenario) from the perspective of disclosure recipients. Yet, little research has described the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses. The aim of the current paper was to use a prospective design to examine the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses to IPV/SA, including positive and negative social reactions, perceptions of victim responsibility, empathy, and confusion and ineffectiveness about how to respond. Participants (N = 126 college students aged 18-23; 70.6% women) answered questions about their anticipated responses to a hypothetical IPV/SA disclosure scenario, and then six months later answered the same questions about their actual responses to an actual disclosure of IPV/SA. Although most anticipated and actual responses were significantly associated, associations were moderate in size. Some associations were stronger for participants with a closer relationship to the victim, for participants who had their own victimization history, for women, and for men. Individuals can predict their responses to some degree, but are not totally accurate in doing so.

Women's Experiences of Social Reactions From Informal and Formal Supports: Using a Modified Administration of the Social Reactions Questionnaire

A growing literature links social reactions to disclosures of intimate violence to posttraumatic outcomes. The Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ), a widely used measure developed to assess social reactions, asks about reactions received from people generally. The ability to examine the impact of social reactions from specific groups of people-such as criminal justice personnel versus community-based providers-has become increasingly more important from both research and practice perspectives. For example, as sexual assault responses nationally have relied on community-coordinated models that involve both criminal justice and community-based systems, tools are lacking to systematically assess the impact of social reactions from criminal justice personnel and community-based providers on survivors. Using the SRQ, the current study asked women to report separately on reactions received from criminal justice personnel, community-based providers, and informal supports. We recruited a diverse community sample of women (N = 228, ages 18-63, 19% lesbian/bisexual, 44% ethnic minority) who experienced a sexual assault in the previous year and disclosed to the criminal justice system and/or a community-based provider. Multilevel analyses revealed considerable variability in the social reactions reported by women across criminal justice personnel, community-based providers, and informal supports. Analyses supported a seven-factor structure for the SRQ when the measure is yoked to particular experiences of disclosure, in this case to criminal justice personnel, community-based providers, or informal supports. The utility of this modified administration and scoring of the SRQ and the importance of considering reactions across different groups are described.

Alcohol's Role in Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosures: A Qualitative Study of Informal Support Dyads

Studies of informal support dyads are lacking to understand the disclosure of sexual assaults and social reactions informal supporters make to survivors. This study of 19 informal support dyads using interview data examined how three relationship types-significant others (i.e., romantic partners), family, and friends-differ in social reactions to sexual assaults in the context of drinking or alcohol problems. It was expected that alcohol's role in responses to such disclosures would differ depending on relationship type as well as role alcohol played in the assault and/or in the survivor's life or those in her social network, including the perpetrator. Results show that alcohol has mixed effects and that alcohol-related assaults as well as contexts where survivors, perpetrators, and/or their support networks have alcohol problems need further study to understand how such disclosures and social reactions occur and the impact they have on survivors, their relationships, and recovery.

Disclosure Recipients' Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Intimate Partner Violence

Prior research indicates that victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) are most likely to disclose their victimization experiences to an informal support (e.g., friend, family), and that IPV disclosures are often met with both positive (e.g., empathic support) and negative (e.g., victim blame) reactions. However, research on social reactions to disclosure largely has neglected the perspectives of disclosure recipients. Guided by the attribution framework, the current study extends prior research by assessing factors (i.e., situation-specific, individual, relational, attributional, and emotional response) related to positive and negative reactions from the perspective of disclosure recipients (N = 743 college students). Linear regression analyses indicated that positive social reactions were related to the victim being a woman, greater frequency of IPV victimization by the victim, greater frequency of IPV victimization by the disclosure recipient, less accepting attitudes toward IPV, a closer relationship with the victim, a less close relationship with the perpetrator, lower perceptions of victim responsibility, more empathy for the victim, and more emotional distress experienced by the disclosure recipient during the disclosure. Negative social reactions were associated with more accepting attitudes toward IPV, greater frequency of IPV victimization by the disclosure recipient, a less close relationship with the victim, higher perceptions of victim responsibility, and more emotional distress experienced by the disclosure recipient. Results suggest that programs to improve responses to victim disclosure should focus on decreasing IPV-supportive attitudes, increasing empathy, and assisting disclosure recipients in managing difficult emotional responses effectively.

Social Reactions and Women's Decisions to Report Sexual Assault to Law Enforcement

Following sexual assault, little is known about how the social reactions women receive from informal supports and community-based providers relate to decisions to report to law enforcement. Among 213 diverse women who had disclosed a recent sexual assault to a community-based provider, 56% reported to law enforcement. Law enforcement reporting was associated with more positive (tangible aid) and less negative (distraction, being treated differently) reactions from informal supports and more tangible aid and less emotional support from community-based providers. Tangible aid from community-based providers predicted law enforcement reporting over the subsequent 9 months among women who had not initially reported.

Stigmatizing Reactions Versus General Negative Reactions to Partner Violence Disclosure as Predictors of Avoidance Coping and Depression

Despite increased attention to the relation between negative social reactions to intimate partner violence (IPV) disclosure and poorer mental health outcomes for victims, research has yet to examine whether certain types of negative social reactions are associated with poorer mental health outcomes more so than others. Furthermore, research is scarce on potential mediators of this relationship. To fill these gaps, the current study examines whether stigmatizing reactions to IPV disclosure, such as victim-blaming responses and minimizing experiences of IPV, are a specific type of negative social reaction that exerts greater influence on women's depressive symptoms than general negative reactions, such as being angry at the perpetrators of IPV. We also examine avoidance coping as a key mediator of this relationship. A cross-sectional correlational study was conducted to examine these relationships. Participants were 212 women from an urban northeast community who indicated being physically victimized by their male partner in the past 6 months. Findings from a multiple regression analysis showed that stigmatizing reactions, not general negative reactions, predicted women's depressive symptoms. In addition, a multiple mediation analysis revealed that avoidance coping strategies, but not approach coping strategies, significantly accounted for the relationship between stigmatizing social reactions and women's depressive symptoms. Findings have implications for improving support from informal and formal sources and subsequently, IPV-exposed women's psychological well-being.

If You Can't Say Something Nice: A Latent Profile Analysis of Social Reactions to Intimate Partner Violence Disclosure and Associations With Mental Health Symptoms

The social reactions that victims receive when disclosing intimate partner violence (IPV) have important implications for recovery and well-being. Women from the community (n = 172) reported IPV, reactions to IPV disclosure, and mental health symptoms in individual interviews. Latent profile analyses revealed three subgroups of victims with varied experiences of reactions. The group characterized by high negative/low positive reactions reported the highest depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity; symptom severity was high regardless of IPV severity. However, symptoms were only severe at high IPV severity among individuals classified into groups characterized by high positive reactions, and by low negative and low positive reactions.

Social Reactions to Intimate Partner Violence Disclosure Among Low-Income, Ethnically Diverse Community Women

Friends and family members' reactions to intimate partner violence (IPV) disclosure play an important role in social support because disclosure often precedes requests for support. Perceptions of social reactions to IPV disclosure are likely to vary by context. Yet, research is limited on the role of ethnicity and severity of physical violence in perceptions of social reactions. We examined perceptions of social reactions to IPV disclosure using data from Wave 6 interviews for Project HOW: Health Outcomes of Women. Participants ( N = 201) were asked proportionately how many friends and family reacted positively and negatively to IPV disclosure. MANOVAs revealed significant differences in perceptions of positive social reactions by ethnicity and severity.

"You Blame Me, Therefore I Blame Me": The Importance of First Disclosure Partner Responses on Trauma-Related Cognitions and Distress

Trauma recovery processes may be understood within a socioecological model. Individual factors (such as sex of the survivor) and microsystem factors (including trauma characteristics) have been studied extensively. However, there is a paucity of research examining the effects of macrosystem factors on the impact of trauma-especially examining how the response of the first person to whom the survivor disclosed affects trauma-related cognitions and distress. Sixty-three college student participants reported a history of disclosing at least one traumatic event in an online, anonymous survey. Participants also provided information on the first person they told about the trauma, the social reactions of that person, general social reactions to trauma disclosure, the participants' trauma-related cognitions and psychological distress (PTSD, other mental health issues), details about the traumatic event, and basic demographic information. Paired sample t tests showed that participants experienced the responses of the first person they told about their trauma as more favorable than the responses of the all of the people to whom they told about the event. Women and survivors of non-interpersonal trauma reported more supportive responses than men and survivors of interpersonal trauma. Hierarchical linear regressions showed that interpersonal trauma and victim blame on the part of the first person the survivor told were associated with more negative trauma-related cognitions. Interpersonal trauma, emotional support, and victim blame were associated with a greater degree of trauma-related distress. The results suggest that participants perceived the response of the first person they told as more beneficial than the response of the rest of their exosystem. However, the reactions of the first person the survivor told differed based on the sex of the survivor and the type of trauma they experienced. Consistent with previous research, interpersonal trauma and victim blame by the first person the survivor told about the trauma were associated with more trauma-related distress and negative cognitions. Trauma-related distress was also associated with greater emotional support by the disclosure partner. The results support the use of the socioeological model to better understand the complex nature of trauma recovery and have implications for prevention.

Seeing Roses in the Thorn Bush: Sexual Assault Survivors' Perceptions of Social Reactions

OBJECTIVE

After sexual assault, survivors often reach to others for support and receive a range of reactions. Although these reactions have been characterized by researchers as positive (e.g., emotional support) or negative (e.g., victim blaming), survivors vary in their perceptions in ways that do not always match this framework. The goal of this research was to examine the degree to which designations of reactions as "positive" or "negative" fits across types of reactions and explain instances of mismatch between these designations and survivors' perceptions.

METHOD

We conducted a qualitative analysis of interviews with 26 survivors of sexual assault to identify themes in their perceptions of social reactions.

RESULTS

Although social reactions were generally perceived in a manner that matched researcher categorizations, there was significant variation. Perceptions could be characterized in terms of whether the reaction felt comfortable/soothing, consistent with survivors' needs/hopes/expectations, and helpful in the long term. The closeness of survivors' relationships with responders, the degree to which they were impacted by the assault, and the presence of other social reactions explained variation from researcher designations of reaction types.

CONCLUSION

This study clarifies the considerations that survivors make when evaluating social reactions and what accounts for discrepant perceptions of these reactions; in particular, they highlight that there is no "one size fits all" reaction to survivors of sexual assault and the context in which reactions occur may affect how they are seen.

Exploring Correlates of Alcohol-Specific Social Reactions in Alcohol-Involved Sexual Assaults

Disclosing pre-assault drinking may influence reactions sexual assault survivors receive from their support networks. Such reactions likely affect survivor's post-assault adjustment. Thus, it is important to identify assault and disclosure characteristics related to disclosing one's drinking and receiving social reactions that specifically comment on pre-assault alcohol use. This exploratory study examined demographic, assault, and disclosure factors as predictors of both survivors' decisions to disclose their pre-assault alcohol use and social reactions survivors received related to their pre-assault alcohol use. Out of survivors who were drinking at the time of the assault, those with more education and who reported greater alcohol impairment or resistance during the assault were more likely to disclose pre-assault alcohol use. As expected, this study found that of women disclosing pre-assault drinking, those with more education and more violent assaults received more negative social reactions specifically commenting on their use of alcohol prior to the assault. Such negative reactions were more common for those telling parents, police, or medical professionals. Women with less education received more positive and negative social reactions that commented specifically on their use of alcohol prior to the assault. Interestingly, results showed that disclosing pre-assault alcohol use in greater detail was related to positive social reactions specific to preassault drinking and experiencing greater alcohol impairment at the time of the assault was associated with both positive and negative social reactions specific to pre-assault alcohol use. Implications for research and intervention are provided for survivors disclosing alcohol-related sexual assaults.

Longitudinal Relationships of Social Reactions, PTSD, and Revictimization in Sexual Assault Survivors

Sexual assault survivors receive various positive and negative social reactions to assault disclosures, yet little is known about the directionality of associations of social reactions to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over time. Data from a large, diverse sample of women who had experienced adult sexual assault was analyzed with hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine how negative and positive reactions relate to PTSD symptoms over 3 years and to test the hypothesis that the relationship between negative social reactions and PTSD symptoms is reciprocal. We found that, as predicted, social reactions predicted subsequent PTSD symptoms, and in turn PTSD symptoms predicted subsequent social reactions. We also investigated the role of sexual revictimization by comparing women who suffered (vs. not) additional sexual victimization during the course of our study. Revictimized women had greater PTSD symptoms and more negative social reactions, but associations of social reactions with PTSD symptoms did not vary according to revictimization status. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Measuring social reactions to female survivors of alcohol-involved sexual assault: The Social Reactions Questionnaire-Alcohol

For women who disclose sexual assault, social reactions can affect post-assault adjustment. Approximately half of the sexual assaults of adult women involve alcohol use. Experimental studies indicate that people put more blame on women who were drinking before the assault, yet no studies have assessed how often actual survivors receive social reactions specific to their alcohol use. This study presents a new measure to assess alcohol-specific social reactions for survivors of sexual assault (The Social Reactions Questionnaire-Alcohol, SRQ-A). Factor analyses of a large community sample indicated that women often receive both positive and negative alcohol-specific reactions when disclosing assault. Discriminant validity confirmed that such reactions are distinct from other types of assault-related social reactions. Against predictions, alcohol-specific reactions were not associated with depression, posttraumatic stress symptoms, binge drinking, or intoxication. However, in support of the hypotheses, alcohol-specific reactions were related to increased characterological self-blame and alcohol problems. Notably, such reactions had both positive and negative relationships with self-blame, indicating a potential avenue for intervention. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: a prospective study

A prospective design was utilized to explore the impact of social reactions to sexual assault disclosure among college women who experienced sexual victimization over a 4-month academic quarter. Women completed baseline, 4- and 7-month assessments of symptomatology, beliefs about why sexual assault occurs, victimization, and social reactions to sexual assault disclosure. Accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, positive social reactions were not associated with victims' subsequent symptomatology or beliefs. However, accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, higher negative social reactions were associated with victims' post-assault reports of hostility, fear, and beliefs about why sexual assault occurs.

Informal social reactions to college women's disclosure of intimate partner violence: associations with psychological and relational variables

This researchers assessed informal (e.g., friends, family) social reactions to college women's (N = 139) disclosure of intimate partner violence (IPV) within their current romantic relationships and associated psychological (i.e., posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS] and global psychological distress symptoms) and relational (i.e., intentions to leave the abusive relationship) variables. Women completed confidential surveys, which assessed current partner abuse, psychological and relational variables, and three types of social reactions from informal supports to disclosure of IPV: positive (e.g., believing, validating the victim), negative (e.g., disbelieving, blaming the victim), and leaving (i.e., being told to end the relationship) reactions. At the bivariate level, negative social reactions to women's disclosure were related to increases in global psychological distress, PTSS, and leaving intentions; positive social reactions to disclosure related only to increases in PTSS; and being told to leave the relationship related to increases in PTSS and leaving intentions. In the regression analyses, after controlling for abuse severity, negative social reactions were significantly related to global psychological distress and PTSS, and being told to leave significantly related to leaving intentions and PTSS. Mechanisms for these relationships and implications are discussed.

The Relationship Between Perceptions of Response to Disclosure of Childhood Sexual Abuse and Later Outcomes

This study assessed whether perceptions of others' reactions to disclosure are related to psychological and physical outcomes among individuals with a history of child sexual abuse. Eighty-six female undergraduates completed a series of questionnaires assessing child sexual abuse, nonsexual trauma, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, somatic symptoms, disclosure, and social reactions to disclosure. Those who reported child sexual abuse endorsed higher levels of psychological and physical symptoms than those who reported a nonsexual traumatic event. Child sexual abuse survivors who reported more hurtful responses to disclosure had higher levels of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and physical symptoms than nonsexual trauma survivors. These findings suggest that many survivors of CSA may need psychological services, and an important focus of treatment may be assessing and strengthening social support.

Longitudinal Predictors of Women's Experiences of Social Reactions Following Intimate Partner Abuse

Researchers using the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ; Ullman, 2000) have documented links between women's perceptions of social reactions following sexual assault and trauma-related distress (e.g., self-blame, problem drinking, and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptoms). The SRQ has been used primarily with female sexual assault victims with instructions to think about reactions from other people told about the assault. Research has generally relied on cross-sectional methods and assumed that social reactions lead to trauma-related outcomes. Reliance on cross-sectional methods has impeded testing assumptions about directionality (e.g., trauma-related distress might increase negative social reactions from others). Furthermore, links between victims' reports of negative social reactions and distress might reflect an overall negative reporting bias. The current study examined women's perceptions of social reactions for an incident of intimate partner abuse (IPA) reported to law enforcement. At a baseline interview (within approximately 28 days of the IPA incident), we assessed demographic factors, characteristics of the IPA, and social support as well as depression and PTSD symptom severity. One year later, PTSD symptom severity consistently predicted women's reports of negative social reactions from others, though not positive social reactions. This research advances understanding of social reactions and points to the role that PTSD symptom severity may have in contributing to social reactions, not only being a consequence of social reactions.

Social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and problem drinking: mediating effects of perceived control and PTSD

Sexual assault survivors receive various positive and negative social reactions to assault disclosures, yet little is known about mechanisms linking these social reactions to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and problem drinking. Data from a large, diverse sample of women who had experienced adult sexual assault were analyzed with structural equation modeling to test a theoretical model of the relationships between specific negative social reactions (e.g., controlling, infantilizing) and positive reactions (e.g., tangible support), perceived control over recovery, PTSD, and drinking outcomes (N = 1,863). A model disaggregating controlling reactions from infantilizing reactions showed that infantilizing reactions in particular related to less perceived control, which in turn was related to more PTSD and problem drinking, whereas controlling reactions were not related to perceived control, PTSD, or problem drinking. Tangible support was related to increased perceived control over recovery, yet it was not protective against PTSD or problem drinking. Finally, PTSD and drinking to cope fully mediated the effect of perceived control on problem drinking. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure, Coping, Perceived Control and PTSD Symptoms in Sexual Assault Victims

The social reactions that sexual assault victims receive when they disclose their assault have been found to relate to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Using path analysis and a large sample of sexual assault survivors (N = 1863), we tested whether perceived control, maladaptive coping, and social and individual adaptive coping strategies mediated the relationships between social reactions to disclosure and PTSD symptoms. We found that positive social reactions to assault disclosure predicted greater perceived control over recovery, which in turn was related to less PTSD symptoms. Positive social reactions to assault disclosure were also associated with more adaptive social and individual coping; however, only adaptive social coping predicted PTSD symptoms. Negative social reactions to assault disclosure were related to greater PTSD symptoms both directly and indirectly through maladaptive coping and marginally through lower perceived control over recovery.

Unsupported or Turned Against: Understanding How Two Types of Negative Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Relate to Post-Assault Outcomes

Social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault have significant effects on women's post-assault outcomes (see Ullman, 2010, for a review). The Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ; Ullman, 2000) measures these reactions (as reported by survivors) and aggregates them into positive and negative scales. However, studies indicate that only some "negative" reactions have a negative valence for survivors whereas others produce a mixed (positive and negative) valence. The current study compares a one-primary-factor model of "negative reactions" to a model with two primary factors that we have labeled "turning against" and "unsupportive acknowledgement." Results showed that although one primary factor was plausible, two primary factors provided a better fit to the data. To assess the discriminant validity of the two factors, we performed regressions predicting social support, psychological adjustment, and coping behaviors. Analyses supported the hypotheses that reactions of being turned against were related to social withdrawal, increased self-blame, and decreased sexual assertiveness whereas reactions of unsupportive acknowledgment were related to both adaptive and maladaptive coping. Against predictions, depression and PTSD were more related to receiving unsupportive acknowledgment than to receiving turning against reactions. Implications for interventions and research are discussed. Importantly, almost all women (94%) in our sample received reactions that acknowledged that an assault occurred but failed to provide support, and this lack of support was associated with worse coping than even more hostile reactions such as being blamed or stigmatized. Therefore, there seems a great need for effective programs to train community members to respond to survivors with the kind of emotional and tangible support that promotes better outcomes.

Social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization and adjustment among survivors of sexual assault

How a support provider responds to disclosure of sexual victimization has important implications for the process of recovery. The present study examines the associations between various positive and negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and psychological distress, coping behavior, social support, and self-esteem in a sample of college women (N = 374). Social reactions to assault disclosure that attempted to control the survivor's decisions were associated with increased symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety and lower perceptions of reassurance of worth from others. Blaming social reactions were associated with less self-esteem and engagement in coping via problem solving. Social reactions that provided emotional support to the survivor were associated with increased coping by seeking emotional support. Contrary to expectations, social reactions that treated the survivor differently were associated with higher self-esteem. Implications are discussed.

Disclosure of sexual assault: characteristics and implications for posttraumatic stress symptoms among African American and caucasian survivors

Although the general trauma literature links disclosure of abuse to positive psychological and physical health outcomes, findings for sexual assault survivors are mixed. Supportive responses can reaffirm self-worth; however, negative responses can increase feelings of shame and isolation. This study examined the effects of disclosure in a community sample of Caucasian and African American sexual assault survivors who completed computer-assisted self-interviews. Among the 58.6% of survivors who had disclosed to someone (n = 136), 96% had disclosed to at least 1 informal and 24% at least 1 formal support provider. The experiences of African American and Caucasian survivors were similar in many ways. Participants received more positive than negative responses from others, although only negative responses were related to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and particularly so for African American participants. Regretting disclosure and disclosure to formal providers were also related to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Suggestions are made for programs to decrease negative responses to disclosure.

Exploring the relationships of women's sexual assault disclosure, social reactions, and problem drinking

The goal of this exploratory study was to examine correlates of sexual assault disclosure and social reactions in female victims with and without drinking problems. An ethnically diverse sample of sexual assault survivors was recruited from college, community, and mental health agencies. Ethnic minority women were less likely to disclose assault, and women with a greater number of traumatic life events disclosed assault more often. Although there were no differences in disclosure likelihood by drinking status; of those disclosing, problem drinkers told more support sources and received more negative and positive social reactions than nonproblem drinkers. Correlates of receiving negative social reactions were similar for normal and problem drinkers; however, negative social reactions to assault disclosure were related to more problem drinking for women with less frequent social interaction. Implications for future research and possible support interventions with problem-drinking victims are provided.

Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims

Demographics, assault variables, and postassault responses were analyzed as correlates of PTSD symptom severity in a sample of 323 sexual assault victims. Regression analyses indicated that less education, greater perceived life threat, and receipt of more negative social reactions upon disclosing assault were each related to greater PTSD symptom severity. Ethnic minority victims reported more negative social reactions from others. Victims of more severe sexual victimization reported fewer positive, but more negative reactions from others. Greater extent of disclosure of the assault was related to more positive and fewer negative social reactions. Telling more persons about the assault was related to more negative and positive reactions. Implications of these results for developing contextual theoretical models of rape-related PTSD are discussed.