Personality Attributions in the Context of Stalking of Ex-Intimates or Others: A Victim's Perspective

Stalking perpetrators may suffer from maladaptive personality traits, particularly if they stalk in the context of an (ex-)intimate relationship. To date, no study has examined how different personality attributions may relate to stalker motivation, or the behaviors they engage in, and how this differs across victim-perpetrator relationships. Further, the perspective of the victim is often not taken into consideration, even though most stalking victims know their stalker intimately and a majority are stalked by a former or current partner. The present study employed a correlational design to assess the relationship between stalking behaviors, motivation to stalk, and personality attributions, as perceived by the victim across an ex-intimate or other victim-perpetrator relationship. The study sample consisted of 100 victims of stalking (63% ex-intimate; 85% female) who were recruited through a National Stalking Helpline. Results align with and extend the results of previous researchers, most notably the high proportion of reported Cluster B-aligned personality attributions among stalkers, as well as the proportion of more under-researched personality attributions, and their associated risks. Victims of an ex-intimate partner were more likely to report their stalker was motivated by intimacy, and personality attributions aligned with both borderline and paranoid PD were more often reported than in other relationship contexts. Results and clinical implications are discussed.

Police-Identified Psychological Distress, Substance Use, and Physical Violence Among Male Intimate Partner Stalkers

Risk factors for stalking violence are not well understood and few studies have examined psychological distress and substance use specifically. This study aimed to assess whether factors extant in police data could predict severity of stalking violence against intimate partner victims. Western Australia Police Force provided data for 603 men linked to a stalking charge relating to a female intimate partner. Binomial logistic regressions showed police-identified histories of psychological distress and drug use predicted moderate violence, but not severe violence. A co-occurring history of drug use and alcohol use was the strongest predictor of moderate violence (OR = 6.8). These findings suggest accounting for violence severity and substance type when examining stalking violence risk factors. Whether psychological distress and/or substance use were active problems for the men during their stalking behavior is unknown, however the detection of these problems may indicate an unmet need for treatment among this group.

Safety and Academic Outcomes of College Campus-Based Advocacy Services

Intimate partner violence (IPV), sexual assault, and stalking are consequential public health and safety issues with wide reaching impacts on emerging adults, including those on college campuses in the United States. In response to high rates of violence among college student populations, universities are developing campus-based advocacy (CBA) programs, which aim to support survivors of interpersonal violence through supportive connections, resource acquisition, and safety planning. However, little data exists related to their impact on key student-survivor outcomes. Thus, this study aims to understand (a) the approach CBA programs use to address safety and academic concerns of student-survivors, and (b) the initial outcomes of CBA programs on safety and academics among students engaged in CBA services at five universities in one Southwestern state. The project used a longitudinal mixed-methods approach, with data collection activities including qualitative interviews with student survivors (n = 29) and a longitudinal, web-based, quantitative survey with matched analyses of safety and academic outcome measures from 115 student survivors who participated in an initial survey and follow-up survey after 6 months. Findings demonstrate key pathways through which CBA programs support survivors and facilitate positive safety and academic outcomes. These pathways include education, supportive connection, and resource access. Analysis of longitudinal survivor data demonstrate substantial reductions in sexual violence, IPV, stalking, and school sabotage at 6-month follow-up compared to initial survey, as well as significant reductions in academic disengagement for student survivors. The findings of the study powerfully demonstrate the positive impact of CBA programs on survivor and campus outcomes. Furthermore, programs not only enhance individual survivor safety and academic outcomes but also support the overall climate and safety of hosting universities.

Prevalence and Psychosocial Impacts of Stalking on Mental Health Professionals: A Systematic Review

Research examining the prevalence and impacts of stalking on mental health professionals (MHPs) has grown over the last two decades. Yet only one previous review has been undertaken examining impacts on staff and focusing on clients as stalkers, with prevalence estimated between 10% and 13%. This systematic review sought to assess prevalence of stalking, and associated impacts and methods of coping reported by MHPs, irrespective of perpetrator type. The search included all healthcare professional groups working in a mental health setting, reported in English or with available translation. Secondary searches were conducted through references cited in primary papers. Of the 7,060 papers identified in five databases, 11 peer-reviewed papers met rigorous inclusion criteria and were quality appraised. Reviewed studies reported prevalence rates between 10.2% and 50%, with higher quality papers reporting a narrower band, 13.9% and 14.3%. However, substantial variability in stalking definitions, and quality of methodology precluded precise prevalence estimation. Participants within the included studies disclosed significant adverse impacts on confidence and competence at work as a consequence of their experiences. Staff invoked substantial workplace and lifestyle changes to mitigate impacts of stalking. However, studies revealed staff disclosed stalking by perpetrators other than clients, notably colleagues and intimate partners, as often or more frequently than by clients. Limitations of the included research and future directions are discussed.

"You're just constantly on alert": Women and Gender-Diverse People's Experiences of Sexual Violence on Public Transport

Sexual violence is a public health issue that can be experienced across the life course. Public transport is a key site of sexual violence and harassment experienced by women and gender-diverse people in Australia, although victim-survivor voices have rarely been sought in addressing this issue. Through in-depth qualitative interviews with 41 diverse female and gender-diverse victim-survivors who were staff or students at two Australian universities, we sought to understand their experiences of sexual violence and harassment on public transport. We found that women and gender-diverse people, while often reporting on a significant experience of sexual violence or harassment on public transport, also had other, "everyday" experiences across their life course that impacted how they traveled and their confidence in the world. Overall, we argue that the significant impact of sexual violence and harassment on public transport should be addressed through targeting public transport as a key site for primary prevention of sexual violence and harassment.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Intimate Partner Stalking and Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors: Associations With PTSD, Academic Outcomes, and Empowerment

Among college survivors of unwanted pursuit behaviors (UPBs; 40.1%, n = 189) or intimate partner stalking (IPS, i.e., UPBs causing emotional distress; 32.1%, n = 151), the present study examined effects of social reactions to disclosures on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, academic outcomes, and personal empowerment. Compared to UPB survivors, IPS survivors were more likely to disclose and reported higher positive and negative reactions to disclosure as well as greater frequency of UPBs/IPS, IPV, and PTSD symptoms. Among both groups, only negative social reactions were positively associated with PTSD symptoms. However, among IPS (but not UPB) survivors, only positive social reactions were related to academic outcomes and empowerment when controlling for PTSD and IPS frequency. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Technology-Facilitated Abuse in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence: A Qualitative Study of Women Survivors in Taiwan

We explore the emerging issue of how communications technologies can be used by male perpetrators to facilitate intimate partner violence against their female partners. We analyzed interview narratives from 18 women survivors of intimate partner violence in Taiwan, informed by Stark's theory of coercive control. Our findings indicated that the male perpetrators of intimate partner violence against the survivors utilized communications technologies to further harm, control, and intimidate their victims. We found that the perpetrators harassed, stalked/monitored, and isolated the survivors and distributed defamatory messages about the survivors to other people using telephones, e-mail, social media, the Internet, broadcast media, and recording devices.

Qualities of Children's Fear in Therapeutic Action Groups Addressing Post-separation Parental Stalking

This paper examines the way in which parental stalking - as a form of domestic abuse - raises fear in children and affects their sense of safety. The study draws on three therapeutic action groups involving 13 children who have experienced stalking by their fathers/stepfathers after the parents' separation. The research question is as follows: How does children's sense of fear manifest in therapeutic action groups? The qualitative analysis revealed three qualities of fear among the children: (1) internalised, (2) constant and (3) episodic. Internalised fear appeared as a child's mental state that materialised as an overwhelming sentiment in the group sessions and elsewhere. Constant fear activated at times, and the senses of fear and security alternated both in the sessions and elsewhere. Episodic fear related to the children's memories of violent events and father's stalking behaviour. The children were able to sense security in the group and in daily life owing to a temporal distance to their father's stalking. Our findings underscore the importance of professionals' awareness of the qualities of children's fear and the significance of assessing their fear and sense of safety in a child-centered manner in therapeutic practices.

An Examination of Predictive Validity and Change in Risk Factors for Stalking over Time

This study investigates the predictive validity of two risk instruments for stalking, the Guidelines for Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM) and the Stalking Risk Profile (SRP), in a sample of 86 forensic psychiatric patients. We compare these tools against a well-validated violence risk assessment measure (Historical, Clinical, Risk Management-20, Version 3 (HCR-20V3)) for violent and stalking-related outcomes. Dynamic (mutable) components of each tool were rated at three annual intervals and revealed significant change across time. The HCR-20V3, SAM, and SRP measures showed comparable ability to classify those who recidivated with further stalking from those who did not (area under the curves = .72-.73, P < 001). Time-varying scores from the dynamic subscales of the HCR-20V3 and SAM contributed significantly to the prediction of stalking, whereas nonstalking violence was primarily forecast by the static (Historical) scale of the HCR-20V3. This suggests comparable validity of general violence and stalking risk tools for assessing the risk of stalking in forensic patients. Stalking-specific risk factors on the SAM and SRP will likely be of added clinical value in terms of tailoring risk management and treatment plans. Findings also emphasize the importance of attending to changes in risk status over time and incorporating time-sensitive methodologies into predictive models.

Examining Cyberstalking Perpetration and Victimization: A Scoping Review

In recent years the body of literature on cyberstalking has expanded rapidly. The present work aimed to summarize the current state of the literature on cyberstalking perpetration and victimization in a scoping review. Forty-one quantitative and qualitative studies that examined variables relating to cyberstalking victimization and perpetration were collated. Following the methodology of Arksey and O'Malley (2005), an in-depth thematic analysis of the articles was undertaken. Prevalence of victimization and perpetration rates were compared and key themes synthesized. Despite examining similar young adult populations, the prevalence of victimization was found to range considerably from 0.7% (Reyns & Engelbrecht, 2010) to 85.2% (Strawhun et al., 2013) across studies. Themes were divided into two overarching classifications, factors relating to victimization and factors relating to perpetration. Deviant peer association, low self-control, previous harassment experiences and personality traits were some of the factors most frequently examined in relation to perpetration; whilst online exposure, online disclosure and guardianship were some of the factors most frequently examined in relation to victimization. Within these themes, deviant peer association and low self-control were found to consistently correlate with an increase in both cyberstalking victimization and perpetration. Guardianship and confidence online demonstrated inconsistent results. This review has summarized what is currently known and has been validated within cyberstalking research pertaining to victimization and perpetration, and has identified gaps and potential areas of future development.

Violent Victimization During Childhood in the United States: Associations With Revictimization and Health

Childhood violence victimization is a serious adverse childhood experience with lasting health impacts. This study examined the prevalence and characteristics of five forms of childhood violence victimization and their association with revictimization and negative health conditions among adults. Data are from the 2010-2012 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey. Age at first victimization and perpetrator sex were assessed; adjusted odds ratios assessed associations with revictimization and health. Ages 14-17 were the most common age at first victimization for most violence types; almost half of male (46.7%) and a quarter of female (27.0%) rape victims reported first victimization before age 10. Most victimization was associated with revictimization and negative health, controlling for adult victimization. Primary prevention of childhood violence may reduce later health risks.

The Relationship Behavior Survey: A Comprehensive Measure of Psychological Intimate Partner Violence for Adolescents

Commonly used scales of psychological intimate partner violence (ψIPV) for adolescents may not include sufficient items to measure adequately different forms of ψ aggressive behaviors. They may also characterize as harmful ψ aggressive behaviors occurring in non-conflictual or joking contexts. The current study examined a new scale, the Relationship Behavior Survey (RBS), which was designed to measure three different forms of ψIPV (denigrating, controlling, and intrusive behaviors) and the appraisals of the perpetrator's intent. Factor structure was examined, and incremental validity was tested by examining the relation of the RBS to general aggressive tendencies and physical IPV after accounting for the emotional abuse and threatening behavior subscales of the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI). Criterion validity and gender differences were also examined. Data were collected using an online survey from a national sample of 1,100 13 to 17-year-olds in the United States (51% identified as female, 80% as White) in a dating relationship. Confirmatory factor analysis supported one ψIPV construct for males and females. The RBS demonstrated incremental validity; criterion validity was supported for controlling intent for males and females and mistrust intent for females. Joking intent was the most reported intent for males and correlated unexpectedly with physical IPV. The RBS captures a larger range of ψIPV behaviors than the CADRI. The addition of intent appraisals provides important information to differentiate forms of ψIPV, particularly in relation to acts motivated by coercion and mistrust.

Heterogeneity in College Student's Technology-Facilitated Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Occurring Post-Breakup: A Latent Profile Analysis

Technology-facilitated intimate partner violence (T-IPV), including social media surveillance (SMS) and cyber dating abuse (CDA), are increasingly common post-breakup experiences among college students. Although a large body of research has focused on identifying risk factors for both types of T-IPV, perpetrators of T-IPV may differ in their pattern of risk factors. Using the I³ model as a guiding framework, the current study sought to identify typologies of college students engaging in post-breakup SMS and CDA. Specifically, 710 college students' responses on self-report measures were examined for similarities in known risk factors, namely attachment anxiety, impulse control difficulties, lack of emotion regulation strategies, intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and problematic alcohol use. Three distinct perpetrator profiles emerged with attachment anxiety, alcohol use, and intolerance of uncertainty presenting as distinguishing features. Problematic alcohol use was evident in the moderate and high levels of SMS and CDA perpetration profiles. Contrary to what was expected, there appeared to be little variability in emotional regulation and impulse control abilities across the three profiles such that individuals belonging to low and high perpetration profiles did not differ in the degree to which they were able to control their impulses or access emotion regulation strategies. Results highlight the potential importance of tailoring interventions, while reducing transdiagnostic risk factors, to account for the heterogeneity in risk factors among T-IPV perpetrators.

Digital Media Used in Education: The Influence on Cyberbullying Behaviors among Youth Students

Students, colleagues, and other members of society are increasingly using digital media. Students utilize digital media for a variety of reasons, including communication, gaming, making new friends, and simply being curious. However, there are some disadvantages to using digital media. Cyberbullying, cyberharassment, and cyberstalking are examples of useful digital media activities that can have a negative impact on digital media users and lead to societal issues. Surprisingly, limited studies have investigated cyberbullying in depth, utilizing a broad and varied sample of Middle Eastern institutions. As a result, the purpose of this study is to fill a research vacuum by questioning students' use of digital media for cyber involvement. This research aims to create a model for assessing the ethical consequences of behaviors that directly impact students' psychological health because of their use of digital media. The questionnaire looked at how people used digital media to engage in cyberbullying and cyber engagement, the ethical implications of bullying, and being harassed, stalked, and bullied. The study employed a quantitative questionnaire to collect data to achieve the research goal. It was given to 1012 students who are digital media users. Partial least squares (PLS) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to examine the data. Considering the empirical data, nearly half of the participants admitted to being harassed, stalked, or bullied on different digital platforms. The evaluation of discriminant validity is a prerequisite factor for examining possible variables' relationships. The goodness-of-fit index indicates that the model is well-fit. Through the established model, decision-makers and school administration would be able to implement measures that would effectively reduce cyber harassment among students and improve the digital media usage experience.

Child Maltreatment and Psychiatric Disorders Increase Risk for Stalking Victimization

Stalking is a serious public health problem, estimated to affect about 15% of women and 6% of men. Victims of stalking have been reported to be at increased risk for psychological distress, depression, lowered social and daily functioning, and other forms of victimization. The present study sought to determine whether individuals with documented histories of childhood maltreatment and those with psychiatric disorders are at increased risk for stalking victimization. Participants included maltreated children and matched controls (N = 892) from a Midwestern, metropolitan area who were followed up into adulthood. Psychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and substance use disorders) were assessed at mean age 29 and borderline personality disorder at age 39. Participants reported lifetime stalking using the Lifetime Trauma and Victimization History instrument and based on a separate measure, past year intimate partner stalking victimization. Analyses controlled for sex, race, and age. Depression, PTSD, antisocial, and borderline personality disorders were associated with increased lifetime risk for stalking victimization. Childhood maltreatment, neglect, and psychiatric disorders (substance use, PTSD, antisocial personality, and borderline personality) predicted increased risk for past year stalking victimization. Findings indicated sex differences in lifetime risk of stalking victimization and race differences in past-year stalking victimization. Although the results reveal relationships among child maltreatment, psychiatric disorders, and stalking victimization, the impact of childhood maltreatment is most salient in terms of past year intimate partner stalking victimization, and particularly for individuals with histories of neglect. Future research is needed to better understand these race and sex differences in stalking victimization.

Categories of Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse Among Young Women and Men: Latent Class Analysis of Psychological, Physical, and Sexual Victimization and Perpetration in a UK Birth Cohort

BACKGROUND

In the UK, around one-third of young people are exposed to Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPVA) by 21 years old. However, types of IPVA victimization in this population (psychological, physical, sexual), and their relationship with impact and perpetration are poorly understood.

METHODS

Participants in a UK birth cohort reported IPVA victimization and perpetration by age 21. We carried out a latent class analysis, where we categorized IPVA by types/frequency of victimization, and then assigned individuals to their most probable class. Within these classes, we then estimated rates of reported: 1) types of negative impacts (sad, upset/unhappy, anxious, depressed, affected work/studies, angry/annoyed, drank/took drugs more); 2) types/frequency of perpetration.

RESULTS

Among 2130 women and 1149 men, 32% and 24% reported IPVA victimization (of which 89% and 73% reported negative impact); 21% and 16% perpetration. Victimization responses were well represented by five classes, including three apparent in both sexes: No-low victimization (characterized by low probabilities of all types of victimization; average probabilities of women and men belonging to this class were 82% and 70%); Mainly psychological (15% and 12%); Psychological and physical victimization (4% and 7%), and two classes that were specific to women: Psychological and sexual (7%); Multi-victimization (frequent victimization for all three types; 4%). In women, all types of negative impact were most common in the Psychological and sexual and Multi-victimization classes; for men, the Psychological and physical class. In women, all types of perpetration were most common for the Mainly psychological, Psychological and physical and Multi-victimization classes; in men, the Mainly psychological and Psychological and physical classes.

DISCUSSION

In this study of young people, we found categories of co-occurrence of types and frequency of IPVA victimization associated with differential rates of negative impact and perpetrating IPVA. This is consistent with emerging evidence of IPVA differentiation and its variable impact in other populations.

Intimate Partner Violence and Health Conditions Among U.S. Adults-National Intimate Partner Violence Survey, 2010-2012

INTRODUCTION

Few studies of intimate partner violence and health outcomes include multiple forms of intimate partner victimization, so this paper sought to examine health associations with intimate partner violence (IPV), including sexual, physical, stalking, and psychological forms, as well as polyvictimization.

METHODS

Data are from the 2010-2012 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, an on-going national random-digit-dial telephone survey of U.S. adults. There were 41,174 respondents. Logistic regression was used to compute prevalence ratios for any IPV, adjusted for demographics and non-IPV victimization. For individual forms of IPV, prevalence ratios were further adjusted for other forms of IPV. Tests for linear trend in poly-victimization were performed.

RESULTS

Any IPV was associated with all health conditions for both sexes with a few exceptions for males. Female penetrative sexual victimization and male stalking victimization were associated with the most health conditions. For each health condition, a significant linear trend indicated that as the number of forms of IPV experienced increased, prevalence of each health condition increased, with a few exceptions for males.

CONCLUSIONS

It is important for service providers to screen for multiple forms of IPV, including psychological aggression, because individual forms or polyvictimization may have unique and cumulative health effects.

Bridging the Gap: The Predictive Roles of Emotion Dysregulation and Stalking-related Attitudes on Offline and Online Stalking and Intrusive Harassment

Stalking and intrusive harassment (SIH) are prevalent and serious public health issues associated with significant psychological, social, and economic consequences. Further exacerbating this problem is the growing use of technology and the internet, which has facilitated the perpetration of SIH behaviors via electronic means. Given its prevalence and negative impact, it is imperative to identify precursors of cyber and offline SIH to better predict and mitigate its detrimental effects. Thus, the current study examined whether overall emotion dysregulation and stalking-related attitudes are predictive factors of SIH perpetration. In addition, it was determined whether specific difficulties with emotion regulation and stalking supportive attitudes were differentially associated with online and offline SIH perpetration. Participants consisted of 874 university students who completed an online survey comprised of a battery of self-report measures, including the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale, Stalking-related Attitudes Questionnaire, Obsessive-Relational Intrusion Pursuit Short Form, and the Cyber-Obsessional Pursuit scale. Logistic regression analyses revealed that overall emotion dysregulation and greater endorsement of stalking supportive attitudes predicted SIH perpetration. Moreover, emotion regulation difficulties distinguished the domain(s) in which an individual was more likely to perpetrate SIH behaviors. Specifically, those who reported more problems with emotion regulation, particularly a lack of emotional awareness, were more likely to engage in both offline and online SIH behaviors concurrently than to perpetrate purely offline or purely online. These findings have significant implications for stalking risk assessment and prevention efforts. In particular, understanding the predictive roles of emotion dysregulation and stalking-related attitudes on online and offline SIH perpetration can inform the development and improvement of evidence-based prevention and intervention programs, as well as stalking risk assessment instruments.

Perceptions of Stalking: Examining Perceivers' Country of Origin, Perpetrator-Target Prior Relationship, and the Mediating Effect of Victim Responsibility

Research in stalking perceptions has shown certain relational biases, in which people tend to view ex-partner stalkers to be less dangerous than stranger or acquaintance stalkers. These findings are in direct contrast to those of real-life cases whereby ex-partner stalkers pose a greater threat. In addition, although stalking is recognized as a global social problem, most studies have been based on samples drawn from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic countries. The current study examined whether the prior relationship between the stalking perpetrator and target influences people's perceptions of stalking and whether cross-national differences exist between participants based in Malaysia (where there is currently no law that criminalizes stalking) and England (where stalking has been outlawed since 1997). In a 3 × 2 between-subjects design, 294 Malaysian participants and 170 English participants were presented with a vignette describing a stalking scenario in which the perpetrator was depicted as a stranger, acquaintance, or ex-partner. Participants judged the extent to which the perpetrator's behavior constitutes stalking; necessitates police intervention; would cause the victim alarm or personal distress; would cause the victim to fear the use of violence; and can be attributed to encouragement on the part of the victim. Results showed that typical relational biases existed in both samples, but Malaysian participants were less likely than their English counterparts to label any harassing scenario as serious. Perceptions of victim responsibility were found to mediate the effect of prior relationship and nationality on participants' perceptions. The findings point to the urgency of better cross-cultural understanding of harassment behavior as well as legislations against stalking.

Who do They Tell? College Students' Formal and Informal Disclosure of Sexual Violence, Sexual Harassment, Stalking, and Dating Violence by Gender, Sexual Identity, and Race

Disclosure of interpersonal violence (i.e., sexual violence, sexual harassment, dating violence, and stalking) is often the first step toward receiving social and systemic support. Research demonstrates that sexual assault and dating violence survivors on college campuses are more likely to disclosure to informal sources (i.e., friends and family) than formal sources (e.g., police, Title IX, counseling centers). However, there is limited research examining disclosure rates after other forms of violence (i.e., stalking, sexual harassment), and little is known about the impact of the survivors' identities on disclosure. Utilizing four academic years (2016-2019) of aggregated campus climate data from a large Southeastern university, the current study examined rates of disclosure across experiences of sexual violence, sexual harassment, dating violence, and stalking while identifying whether the prevalence and type of disclosure (formal versus informal-only) differed by gender, sexual orientation, and/or race/ethnicity. Of 8,017 participants, 4.6% reported sexual violence, 18.9% reported sexual harassment, 12.3% reported dating violence, and 11.3% reported stalking in the past academic year. Results of multinomial logistic regression indicated that, across all four types of violence, men (as compared to women) had lower odds of disclosing both informally-only and formally. Bisexual as compared to heterosexual students had higher odds of formal disclosure of sexual harassment and stalking while gay/lesbian students had higher odds of formally disclosing sexual harassment. Individuals of another race/ethnicity (compared to White students) had lower odds of informal-only disclosure of dating violence. Findings underscore the need to implement programs to improve the social reactions of friends and family members receiving disclosures, and to increase culturally-tailored service provision.

Young Women's Experiences With Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence From Male Strangers

Stranger-perpetrated harassment was identified decades ago to describe the pervasive, unwanted sexual attention women experience in public spaces. This form of harassment, which has evolved in the modern era, targets women as they navigate online spaces, social media, texting, and online gaming. The present research explored university-aged women's experiences (n = 381) with online male-perpetrated sexual harassment, including the nature and frequency of the harassment, how women responded to the harassment, and how men reportedly reacted to women's strategies. Trends in harassment experiences are explored descriptively and with thematic analysis. Most women reported receiving sexually inappropriate messages (84%, n = 318), sexist remarks or comments (74%, n = 281), seductive behavior or come-ons (70%, n = 265), or unwanted sexual attention (64%, n = 245) in an online platform, social media account, email, or text message. This sexual attention from unknown males often began at a very young age (12-14 years). The harassment took many forms, including inappropriate sexual comments on social media posts, explicit photos of male genitalia, and solicitations for sex. Although most women reported strong negative emotional reactions to the harassment (disgust, fear, anger), they generally adopted non-confrontational strategies to deal with the harassment, electing to ignore/delete the content or blocking the offender. Women reported that some men nevertheless persisted with the harassment, following them across multiple sites online, escalating in intensity and severity, and leading some women to delete their own social media accounts. These results suggest the need for early intervention and education programs and industry response.

Mental and Physical Health Changes Following an Abusive Intimate Relationship: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies are critical to understanding health changes following trauma. The present systematic review adopted a longitudinal perspective on intimate partner abuse (IPA) by examining characteristics and findings of studies that followed persons who recently left an abusive relationship or who were at a point where they might leave and reported on health over time. Web of Science, EBSCO, Published International Literature on Traumatic Stress, and PubMed databases were searched using combinations of terms reflecting IPA, longitudinal study design, and health outcomes. Quantitative studies that recruited adults or adolescents, had multiple time points, used a health indicator as an outcome, and where IPA was a predictor, independent variable, or inclusion criterion were included. These methods yielded 36 studies from 20 unique samples. The following domains were coded for each article: citation, demographics, risk of bias, sample setting, design, follow-up, relationship and IPA characteristics, outcomes, and analytic focus. Results showed that all samples were female, and most were help-seeking. Depression, post-traumatic stress, and physical symptoms decreased over time, while quality of life increased in most studies. Changes in anxiety symptoms over time were less consistent. Ongoing IPA and social support were the most consistent predictors of health changes over time, showing relations with indicators of poorer or better health, respectively. There was preliminary evidence that decreases in emotional and physical symptoms plateaued within 9 months of the baseline assessment. Sampling, study design, measurement, and analysis are considered, and recommendations for future research are provided.

Effects of Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrator and Victim Race on Protective Order Determinations

The legal granting of temporary and permanent protective orders prohibits a perpetrator from engaging in contact with the victim. Although protective orders reduce risk of re-abuse, very little research has explored factors that predict the likelihood that a victim is granted a protective order. Thus, we conducted an archival analysis on data previously collected from a Protection Order Assistance Office in a midwestern region of the United States, testing the influence of victim and perpetrator race on protective order allocations. Specifically, we coded data gathered from 490 petitioners (i.e., victims) seeking a protective order against a perpetrator of intimate partner violence, stalking, or sexual offending. Analyses revealed that racial minority victims were significantly less likely to receive a temporary protective order compared to White victims - effects that were exacerbated when the perpetrator was White (versus racial minority). These results are in line with existing research and theory regarding aversive racism. Implications for theory, policy, and practice are discussed.

Does children's fear matter? Evaluating children's positions in Finnish court decisions on stalking

Children are at particular risk when one parent is targeted by the other parent's stalking behaviors post-separation. In this article, we explore how court decisions position children when assessing fear, distress, and unlawfulness in cases of parental stalking. The data comprised 127 court decisions on stalking that involved a relationship (dating, cohabitation, or marriage), separation/divorce, and one or more children. Using discourse analysis, we identified four categories in how children were positioned: (1) children relegated to the background, (2) children's involvement recounted as part of the facts, (3) children's involvement assessed as relevant because it affected the parent, and (4) children as agents or victims in their own right. The findings highlight a significant risk of losing sight of children when the focus is on parents, and our concern is that this may also contribute to children not receiving the support they need.

Stalkers: Specialists Versus Generalists

AbstractIt is known that many domestic violence (DV) offenders also commit violent and nonviolent offences that are not domestic in nature. Stalking frequently evolves from DV contexts. The present study used police data to explore (i) the extent to which stalking offenders in Western Australia specialize in stalking, (ii) the frequency of involvement in DV offending by stalking offenders, and (iii) the types of offences that co-occur with stalking offences. The dataset covered 404 individuals who were identified by the Western Australia Police Force as the offender for a stalking offence between January 1st, 2003 and July 30th, 2017. Only a minority of the offenders specialized in stalking, with the majority offending in other ways against the index victim and also offending against others via a broad range of offences. Although less than 10% were recorded as having carried out domestic assaults, more than half had broken restraining orders. Like DV offenders, the stalkers in this sample were largely generalist offenders. It was not clear, however, what proportion of offences against the same index victim were directly related to stalking. Stalking is a course of conduct that often involves individual acts that may be offences in themselves. What is clearer is the finding that for many stalkers, stalking forms part of a wider pattern of antisocial activity. Those stalkers who do not specialize in stalking may be less likely to benefit from intervention efforts that are focused solely on stalking.

Perceptions of stalking in Mainland China: Behaviors, motives, and effective coping strategies

There is limited information available on the phenomenon of stalking in the Asian context, especially in mainland China. This study investigated individuals' perceptions of stalking behavior, the motives of stalkers, and the effective strategies for coping with stalking victimization in a sample of 985 young adults (aged 18-33 years) from Liaoning province in mainland China. The influence of specific demographic (i.e., age, sex, religiosity, and education) and psychosocial (i.e., social bonds and self-control) characteristics on individuals' perceptions of effective coping strategies for stalking victimization were also examined. In general, men and women held significantly different perceptions of stalking behavior, stalkers' motives, and strategies that were considered effective for coping with stalking. Multivariate analyses indicated that a low educational level was significantly associated with the perception that avoidant tactics constituted an effective strategy for coping with stalking victimization. Moreover, individuals with lower educational levels and stronger social bonds tended to perceive proactive and aggressive tactics to constitute an effective strategy for coping with stalking victimization. Finally, individuals with lower self-control tended to endorse compliance tactics when coping with stalking victimization. In view of the devastating nature and consequences of stalking, the findings of this study highlight the need for anti-stalking legislation in mainland China.

A critical analysis of stalking theory and implications for research and practice

This article comprehensively reviews and critiques theories providing an aetiological account of stalking. We evaluate applications of preexisting psychological theories to stalking (attachment theory, evolutionary theory, social learning theory, information processing models of aggression, coercive control theory, and behavioural theory) as well as the only novel theory of stalking to date: Relational goal pursuit theory. Our aim was to identify which are supported by research, identify gaps in theoretical scope and explanatory depth and examine how current theories might inform clinical practice. This evaluation suggests that theories of stalking are underdeveloped relative to other areas of forensic clinical psychology and the theoretical literature is relatively stagnant. Consequently, there is limited research into clinically meaningful constructs that can guide the assessment, formulation and treatment of this client group. We identify similarities across existing theories, discussing implications for future research and clinical practice with people who stalk.

Risk factors for intimate partner homicide in England and Wales

Intimate partner homicides are often situated within the context of domestic abuse, and although less prevalent than domestic abuse, there have been several multi-agency approaches to understanding the risk for these fatal crimes. Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs) were introduced in 2011 to provide information to help with assessing such risk. This paper aims to analyse DHRs in England and Wales to investigate/determine risk factors for domestic homicide following intimate partner abuse. All publicly available DHRs published between July 2011 and November 2020 where the victim and perpetrator were or had been intimate partners (N = 263) were retrieved from Community Safety Partnership websites in England and Wales. A quantitative design was used to extract data from DHRs, and descriptive and inferential statistics were generated by SPSS 26. Findings identified risk factors relating to domestic abuse, including stalking, separation, and the victim being in a new relationship. Sociodemographic risk factors included higher levels of deprivation, lower income and higher barriers to housing and services. This highlights the role of both individual and sociodemographic factors in domestic homicides, and particularly the need for greater socioeconomic security for victims of domestic abuse. In conclusion, though much of the data is in line with previous research, our analysis highlights the pivotal role of regional poverty, with comfortable socioeconomic conditions offering protection against intimate partner homicides. This research suggests important directions for future research and makes a valuable contribution to a more in-depth understanding of the relationship between domestic abuse and intimate partner homicide.

Post break-up stalking: Police-officers' perceptions

Stalking is characterized by persistent unwanted behaviors and can disrupt the lives of victims. Its prevalence has been increasing with time. Due to the recent criminalization of stalking in Portugal and its being an understudied phenomenon, the objective of this study is to assess the perceptions of police officers (n = 1212) about stalking post intimate relationship breakup. We developed an adaptation of the questionnaire "Reasonable Perceptions of Stalking", using vignettes that describe stalking scenarios with the manipulation of severity, and victim and perpetrator sex. The main effects of severity, as well as the victim and the perpetrator's sex, were significant intrasubject variables in the perceptions of stalking and its severity, criminality, victim alert, fear of violence, victim-blaming, and the need for intervention. Participants' sex, previous training, and personal and/or professional experience with stalking were also significant variables concerning participants' perceptions. Our findings show that gender stereotypes are still perpetuated and have important implications for police officer training and intervention.

Where to draw the line? The influence of prior relationship, perpetrator-target sex and perpetrator motivation on the point at which behavior 'crosses the line' and becomes stalking

The present study examines the influence of prior relationship (intimate, non-intimate), perpetrator-target sex (male-female, female-male) and perpetrator motivation (romance, upset) on (1) the point at which behavior crosses the line and becomes stalking, and (2) the likelihood of offering five forms of advice to the target (formal support, informal support, protective measures, avoidance measures, threatening action). The study used a 2 × 2 × 2 between-participants experimental design. Four-hundred and sixty-one UK students read one of eight versions of a hypothetical scenario that they were informed may or may not depict a stalking situation. Analyses revealed that 97.8% (n = 451) of participants believed the perpetrator's behavior constituted stalking, and that behavior was perceived to cross the line earlier in the scenario when the perpetrator's motivation was to upset the target in the context of a non-intimate prior relationship only. Prior relationship, perpetrator-target sex and perpetrator motivation also influenced the likelihood of offering various forms of advice to the target. These findings further demonstrate the impact of situational characteristics on perceptions of stalking and highlight the importance of educational campaigns and programs to increase people's understanding of stalking.

Victim reactions to being stalked: Examining the effects of perceived offender characteristics and motivations

The current research utilized the National Crime Victimization Survey Supplemental Victimization Survey to investigate stalking in the United States. These data, collected from stalking victims, address the relationship between victims' perceptions of the stalker's motives on two post-victimization outcomes. Specifically, we examined the relationship between the victim's assessment of motive and the degree of harm they reported, along with exploring the relationship between harm and the likelihoods of engaging in self-protective behaviors. Here, harm was measured through an index of specific fears, concerns, and emotional distresses. We found that the frequency of stalking behaviors, the duration of the stalking experience, and the overall invasiveness of the victimization, in addition to certain motives, were positively correlated with harm. Furthermore, we found that harm was positively correlated with a number of protective actions. For researchers, this work may serve to provide entry points in the development of new grounded theory. For practitioners in law enforcement, this work may provide insights into the invasive nature of stalking and the fear and harm caused to the victim.

Dealing with stalking cases in Lithuania: The role of public perceptions and legal response

Stalking is considered a dangerous form of victimization that requires an effective criminal justice response. In this current research, we aimed (1) to examine lifetime prevalence of stalking victimization and public perceptions of stalking as well as (2) to investigate the characteristics of stalking cases in recent court practice in Lithuania. In Study 1, a web-based survey on a representative sample of 1517 respondents aged 18-87 years was conducted. In Study 2, an analysis of 100 court decisions was performed in stalking-related criminal cases from 2016 to 2020. The research findings (i.e., stalking victimization and public perceptions of stalking phenomenon, coercive measures that were ordered in pre-trial investigation, and sentences imposed closing the cases) are discussed in terms of the latest legal developments and existing response options, as well as considerations for future research.

Understanding Stalking Among University Students in Ghana: A Mixed-Methods Study

The purpose of this study is to explore experiences of stalking behaviors among midwifery students at one Ghanaian university, as well as their association with mental health disorders. Specifically, this study had the following three aims: (a) to identify the frequency of stalking experiences in this population; (b) to explore mental health symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, within this population; and (c) to better understand intervention opportunities related to stalking, including bystander intervention and use of available resources. The study utilized an exploratory mixed-methods design with surveys (n = 118) and focus group discussions (n = 2 with 16 participants) with midwifery students recruited from a centrally located Ghanaian university campus in July of 2018 using convenience sampling. Results indicate a large percentage (80.3%) of participants have experienced stalking behavior(s) within the last six months. Multiple regression analyses demonstrate a statistically significant relationship between any stalking behaviors and depressive symptomatology as well as between unwanted monitoring/following and anxiety. This was reinforced by focus group discussions in which participants discussed the themes of: (a) types of stalking, with a heavy emphasis on using technology for unwanted following/monitoring; (b) positive versus negative perceptions of stalking intentions, where some types of monitoring and following could be seen as forms of flattery or interest; and (c) barriers to seeking help that focused on stigma, cultural barriers, systemic barriers, and personal barriers. Future research should delve more deeply into barriers to existing resources to identify ways to increase accessibility for stalking survivors in connection with mental health services. This study also highlights the need for additional research to more clearly understand stalking in Ghana so that interventions can begin to address mental health services, healthy relationships, communication, and consent.

Do Women's Coping Responses to Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors Reduce Future Victimization? A Prospective Exploration

While some studies have assessed perceptions of the effectiveness of coping responses to unwanted pursuit behavior (UPB) victimization, there is limited research assessing the prospective effectiveness of various coping responses in reducing victimization. The current study assessed the effectiveness of a range of coping responses in reducing UPB victimization over an 8-week timeframe. Undergraduate women who had reported experiencing two or more incidents of UPB following the break-up with a man within the past 3 years (N =181) completed measures on coping responses. Whereas Moving Against and Moving Toward responses were bivariately correlated with increases in UPB victimization across the 8-week interim, in a multivariate model, none of the coping responses were associated with Time 2 UPB victimization; rather, higher frequencies of both Time 1 UPB victimization and concurrent Time 2 intimate partner violence predicted Time 2 UPB victimization. More research and replication studies are needed since the results here suggest that current UPB response recommendations (e.g., changing social media accounts, maintaining a log of contact from the perpetrator) do not result in reductions in victimization; further research is needed to identify responses that do result in a reduction of unwanted pursuit.

The Wheel of Change Moves On: Assessing the Severity of Stalking Behavior

Stalking is a significant social issue. The inconsistency as to what defines stalking has resulted in the creation of different methods to measure the crime. However, there has been minimal work done that assesses the severity of individual stalking behaviors. The aim of the present study was to assess the level of stalking behavior in terms of severity within a randomly selected sample of 924 cases from the database of the National Stalking Helpline. Item response theory analyses were used to assist in developing a scale that displays the ranking order of each stalking behavior. These analyses were also used to examine whether the stalking behavioral items created a single continuum of severity of stalking. Results indicated that 16 stalking behavioral items of the 28 items present in the National Stalking Helpline, best represented the severity of stalking. Unwanted communication behaviors such as text messages and phone calls were located at the lower end of the severity scale, whereas criminal damage and death threats were mapped on the higher end of the continuum. The findings also revealed that the 16 items categorized under 6 factors. The findings of the present study provide many implications for stalking agency professionals and criminal justice responses.

Routine Activities and Stalking Victimization in Sexual Minority College Students

Sexual minority individuals, due to additional chronic stress they experience from living with a marginalized identity, may be perceived as vulnerable targets by motivated perpetrators of stalking. Using campus climate data collected over 11 years, researchers explore stalking victimization with a particular focus on the experiences of sexual minority college students. To get a better understanding of stalking as experienced by this population, this study investigated descriptive qualities and prevalence of stalking victimization among college students to compare experiences of sexual minority and heterosexual individuals. Additionally, using a routine activities theory framework, this study explored multiple sexual minority identities as unique predictors of stalking victimization. Results showed that bisexual and pansexual women were significantly more likely to experience stalking than heterosexual women, and gay men were significantly more likely to experience stalking than heterosexual men. In samples that included heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and pansexual students, having a sexual minority identity predicted stalking victimization for men, and having a non-monosexual (bisexual or pansexual) identity predicted stalking victimization for women. When looking across all sexual orientations, sexual minority identity significantly predicted stalking victimization for both men and women. Results are discussed in the context of routine activities theory and future directions for exploring stalking in sexual minority populations are identified.

What is Cyberstalking? A Review of Measurements

The absence of a widely accepted definition of cyberstalking has resulted in studies operationalizing it in various ways, reducing the comparability and generalizability of findings. The present work examined the most common behaviors and criteria used to operationalize cyberstalking within the quantitative literature. The definitions employed by the studies were evaluated in respect of (a) whether they included a minimum requirement for the number of times the behaviors needed to be repeated in order to be considered "cyberstalking"; (b) whether victim fear was required for the behaviors to be considered "cyberstalking"; (c) the timeframe within which the cyberstalking behavior needed to have occurred; and (d) the behaviors identified as indicating cyberstalking. The results demonstrated considerable variation in the specificity of criteria used. Of the 33 studies examined, 45% specifically defined a minimum number of behavioral repetitions required to classify the behaviors as "cyberstalking," although there were some discrepancies in the number of behaviors specified across studies. Only 30% of studies included victim fear as a criterion and 70% of studies did not include specific timeframe requirements in which the behaviors needed to have occurred within. The number and description of behaviors included within scales used to measure "cyberstalking" varied widely. Some instruments utilized as many as 24 different items, whilst others identified cyberstalking through the use of two items. A series of recommendations are advanced aimed at providing criteria for defining and operationalizing cyberstalking that can be employed by future studies, with the ultimate aim of allowing greater comparability between results. From this a consistent knowledge base can be developed, and with it a deeper understanding of cyberstalking and how to counter it.

The Development and Validation of Teen Beliefs on Relationship Abuse Measure (TBRAM)

The purpose of this study was to validate an original and innovative survey focused on both teens' personal beliefs and how they perceived their peers' beliefs regarding relationship abuse with four research questions: What are the measured constructs in this survey? Is the hypothesized factor structure of the five types of relationship abuse confirmed? Does the validity of constructs vary among racial/ethnic groups and genders? Are there differences between teens' own beliefs on relationship abuse and their perceptions of peers' beliefs? To address these questions, two confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models were examined with 591 high school students' responses. The first CFA model was created based on the exploratory factor analysis results and the second CFA model was created based on the theoretically hypothesized model of five types of relationship abuse. The results indicate that the 5-factor, 11-item model based on the theoretical hypothesis is the best fit to the data. The multiple group model analysis demonstrated that the identified CFA measurement model was invariant across different gender and racial/ethnic groups. The validated instrument of Teen Beliefs on Relationship Abuse Measure is a reliable and valid way to measure both teens' personal beliefs and their perceptions of peers' beliefs on five types of relationship abuse including emotional, physical, sexual, stalking, and digital abuses. With the validated model, t-test results indicate that teens' own beliefs are significantly more positive than their perceptions of their peers' beliefs for all the five factors. The measure is useful for researchers, educators, and parents to measure and understand teen perceptions of themselves and their peers on different types of relationship abuses to better support them develop healthy, respectful, and nonviolent relationships.

Prevalence of Stalking Among Justice Professionals in Portugal

Despite the growing interest from researchers' in recent years, stalking is a phenomenon of difficult operationalization within the scientific community. Examining the phenomenon in criminal justice professionals has become relevant since the work context is considered a fertile environment for the presence of stalking, despite underreported. This study aims specifically to know the prevalence, nature, dynamics, impact, and help-seeking behaviors (and its perceived effectiveness) of stalking victimization by criminal justice professionals stalked in Portugal. We were also interested in the professionals' perceptions of why they were stalked. The data were collected through a web-based survey, after the approval of the ethic committee. The sample was composed of 270 criminal justice professionals, mostly men (59.3%), with a mean age of 42.70 (SD = 9.07) years. The results showed that 24.8% reported having been stalked at least once in their lifetime. Stalking prevalence was higher in women compared to men. Concerning the profession, the highest prevalence was verified in the group of professionals composed of lawyers, jurists, court officials, and auditors, followed by the group of magistrates, and finally the judges and the criminal police. More diversity of stalking behaviors experienced was associated with a higher frequency of those behaviors. Psychological health (70.7%) and lifestyle/behavioral changes (62.1%) were the most reported areas of impact. Being stalked in a private context (e.g., intimate relationships), for a longer period and feeling a higher level of fear as a result of the stalking campaign were associated with more impact. Most of the victims (74.6%) revealed having sought help to cope with the stalking experience, with women seeking more help than men (88.6% vs. 59.4%). For bringing evidence that criminal justice professionals are at risk of being stalked, these findings can contribute to the adoption of policies and strategies to prevent stalking victimization among this population.

Risk Management in Stalking Victims: A Multi-Agency Approach to Victim Advocacy

A pilot Multi-Agency Stalking Intervention Programme (MASIP), introduced in three police forces in England, provided among a range of interventions, the delivery of safety planning advice, and needs-based support for stalking victims through a bespoke advocacy service. The ultimate aim of MASIP was to equip victims with tools to manage the variety of harms caused by stalking, as well as enable them to access the criminal justice system with adequate support. This study explores the personal needs of stalking victims from the perspectives of stalking victims, advocates and stakeholders involved in the intervention program, as part of a larger evaluation study conducted by the authors. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a total of 10 stalking victims who participated in the MASIP, three advocates who directly interacted with the victims, and 19 MASIP stakeholders involved in the project. Findings revealed that overall, victims believed the advocacy service aided their ability to cope with the realities of stalking. Having a victim advocate as single point of contact made victims' journey through the justice system easier to navigate, provided them with the emotional support that they required to deal with the harms of stalking and the practical advice offered regarding their personal safety, and allowed them to feel in control of their own risk management. Advocates reported that the multi-agency context helped in risk assessment and ability to design and deliver bespoke support plans, which uniquely improved victims' engagement with the service. Due to the small size and possibly biased sample, our conclusions must be interpreted with caution.

Is This Stalking? Perceptions and Victimization Experiences of Stalking and Intrusive Behaviors in Hong Kong, Mainland China, and Ghana

Many studies of stalking and intrusive behaviors are conducted with samples from individualist Western cultures, and limited information is available on such behavior in collectivist cultures. By using a sample of 1143 adults (440 males and 703 females) from Hong Kong (n = 305), mainland China (n = 464), and Ghana (n = 374), this study compares perceptions and experiences of stalking and intrusive behaviors as well as the frequency and duration of the participants' worst experiences with such behaviors. The lifetime prevalence rate of stalking victimization for the overall sample was 34.6%, 22.3% for the Hong Kongers, 32.3% for the mainland Chinese, and 47.3% for the Ghanaians. Relative to the Hong Kongers and Ghanaians, the mainland Chinese were more likely to judge most intrusive activities as unacceptable. However, the mainland Chinese were generally less likely to have experienced the listed intrusive activities than their counterparts. The Ghanaians, in contrast, reported significantly more victimization experiences than the Hong Kongers and the mainland Chinese, especially with aggression and surveillance, unwanted attention, and persistent courtship and imposition types of behaviors. Furthermore, the mainland Chinese and Ghanaians generally reported significantly higher frequencies of stalking and intrusive behavior in their worst experiences than did the Hong Kongers. Conversely, the Hong Kongers and Ghanaians reported significantly more persistent types of stalking and intrusive behaviors than the mainland Chinese. The results of this study indicate the need for anti-stalking legislation in Hong Kong, mainland China, and Ghana, given the devastating nature and consequences of stalking and intrusive behaviors there.

Examining Factors Associated with Stalking-Related Fears Among Men and Women Stalked by Male and Female Acquaintances

This study examines experiences of acquaintance stalking victims (n = 389), recruited from a community sample, by victim and stalker gender and explores factors associated with three measures of fear (fear of harm, perceived capability of stalker to harm, and fear of significant life impact). There were five main findings from this study: (a) although research suggests ex-partner stalkers are the most threatening, assaultive, and harassing stalkers, particularly for women, this study shows that a significant number of acquaintance stalking victims experience high levels of fear, threats, life interference, and assault; (b) women had higher stalking-related fear levels and a greater belief that their stalker was capable of harming them regardless of stalker gender, while men stalked by females were least concerned about harm; (c) close to one-quarter of victims had one unknown background factor and one-third indicated not knowing about two or more background factors suggesting variation in the level of victim knowledge about acquaintance stalkers; (d) the number of threats, stalker history of violence to others, the belief that the stalker does not care about severe consequences, and a greater number of unknown stalker background factors were associated with higher stalking-related fear levels and an increased perception that the stalker was capable of harm; and, (e) higher concern about a significant life impact from the stalking was associated with forced confrontations, believing the stalker wanted revenge, victim vulnerability, proxy stalking, and technology facilitated stalking. Future research is needed to better understand the dynamics of acquaintance stalking, particularly with regard to how close or distant the stalker was to the victim. Considering victim and stalker gender dynamics in acquaintance stalking may be important for safety planning and risk assessment.

Stalking Recidivism: A Comparison of Operational Definitions

The criminal offense of stalking is somewhat different to other offenses due to the repetitive, innocuous, and often multifaceted nature of the crime. Given that stalking constitutes a number of different behaviors, such as violence and threats, research on stalking recidivism becomes difficult as recidivism can be defined in a number of ways. This study utilized a dataset of Western Australia Police Force incident reports, comprising a sample of 404 stalking offenders. Survival curves and a binomial logistic regression were used to determine time to recidivism and predictors of recidivism, using four different definitions of recidivism. Predictor variables included age of the offender, prior history of criminal charges, and offender ethnicity. The four definitions ranged from narrow (a new stalking charge) to broad (any new criminal charge). The results of the study show that stalkers reoffend quickly, however our understanding of how fast and which offender characteristics predict recidivism, is dependent on how we define recidivism. This highlights the importance of considering how stalking recidivism is defined in future works and may explain current differences in stalking recidivism findings.

Stalking and Other Forms of Dating Violence: Lessons Learned from You in Relation to Cyber Safety

Often, individuals share private information on social media, being unaware of online dangers. You, a popular psychological thriller series on Netflix, raises issues of stalking behaviors through social media as part of a pattern of dating violence. Using a qualitative content analysis approach, this study examined how social media is used for erotic stalking, dating violence, and cyber safety awareness (or lack thereof) in You. The researchers analyzed all 10 episodes of the first season of You independently, taking notes. A combined in-depth analysis included discussions of messages and meanings resulting in three overarching themes: obsessive online and in-person erotic stalking, controlling behaviors in the context of the dating relationship, and an apparent indifference about cyber safety with oversharing of personal information on social media, which was exploited by the lead protagonist. You raises important concerns including inappropriate dating behaviors such as stalking, coercive control, violence, and questionable masculine attitudes, which are interwoven with an apparent lack of knowledge and understanding in relation to cyber safety. We concluded that raising awareness of the importance of online safety and security in the context of a dating relationship is imperative and that You can be used as an educational tool.

Control Balance, Personality Traits, Attachment, and Communication Styles Associated with Stalking

Stalking is associated with negative occupational, physical, social, and psychological consequences, yet little is known about who is at risk of being stalked. The purpose of the current study was to determine if individuals with experiences of being stalked have unique personality traits, attachment, and communication styles. Participants (N = 180; 78% female, mean age = 24, SD = 8.18) completed an online, self-report survey utilizing a cross-sectional, correlational design. Results indicated that 21% (N = 38) of participants reported experiences of being stalked. Those who had experienced stalking had a higher control deficit (t = 3.99, p = .000), higher control surplus (t = 2.14, p = .03), and lower general health scores (t = -2.50, p = .01), as compared to participants who had not experienced stalking. Results also showed that those who had experienced stalking possessed higher scores of openness (F = 5.41, p = .021), neuroticism (F = 5.29, p = .023), and motivation to defer to a dominant partner (F = 46.79, p = .000). A logistic regression revealed that higher scores on neuroticism, motivation to defer to a dominant partner, and extroversion were associated with an increased risk of being stalked, whereas higher scores on interpersonal deference, disequilibrium, and agreeableness decreased college students' risk of being stalked (χ² (11, N = 180) = 67.34, p < .001). Findings provide information that may be used to decrease the prevalence of stalking victimization and inform clinical treatment for victims of this crime.

Forecasting Stalking Recidivism Using the Guidelines for Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM)

We examined the long-term risk for stalking recidivism and the predictive validity of ratings made using the Guidelines for Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM) in 100 stalking offenders from a forensic clinic. Overall, 45 offenders were convicted of, charged with, or the subject of police investigation for stalking-related offenses during a potential time at risk that averaged 13.47 years. Survival analyses using the Cox proportional hazards model indicated that a composite score of the presence of SAM risk factors was significantly predictive of recidivism and had significant incremental validity relative to total scores on two scales commonly used in violence risk assessment, the Screening Version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL:SV) and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG). Overall ratings of risk made using the SAM, however, were not significantly predictive of recidivism. We discuss the potential uses of the SAM in stalking risk assessment and provide recommendations for future research.

Stalking Behaviors Presented by Ex-Intimate Stalkers: A Victim's Perspective

Stalking can be defined as a pattern of repeated, unwanted behaviors by one person to another. These behaviors may take the form of communicative intrusion, third-party contact, and physical or sexual assault. The individual stalking behaviors experienced by victims have been found to differ in every case, specifically dependent on their stalker-victim relationship. Recent tragedies have shown that the police force generally underestimates the risk of ex-intimate stalking and harassment behaviors. This study aims to identify patterns of stalking behaviors from a victim's perspective, specifically, whether there are any patterns of behavior among the ex-intimate stalkers, in comparison with acquaintance or stranger stalkers. Information from the accounts of individuals who had reported unwanted experiences as a result of one of three stalker-victim relationships (ex-intimate, acquaintance, or stranger) was extracted from the National Stalking Helpline database. Analyses were conducted on a sample of 1,626 victims' reports. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multiple logistic regressions were conducted to establish any common patterns of behavior among the subgroups of stalkers and to ascertain which behaviors increased the odds of being categorized as an ex-intimate stalker. Results indicated that ex-intimate stalkers presented considerably more behaviors than acquaintance or stranger stalkers; some of which included third-party contact, criminal damage, physical assault, and sexual assault. Results also indicated that ex-intimate stalkers presented more severe behaviors than the other subgroups. The majority of stalking behaviors were found to produce a statistically significant predictive contribution to being classed as an ex-intimate stalker. The findings in this study highlight that common misconception surrounding ex-intimate stalking still exists at every level of the Criminal Justice System. Results and implications for future research are discussed.

Intimate Partner Stalking/Pursuit: A Pathophysiology of Attachment Style

Approximately half of stalking victims were previously in an intimate relationship with the perpetrator, and attachment style is strongly correlated with intimate partner stalking (IPS). In the first study to investigate polyvagal theory in IPS, we examined 58 adult participants' attachment style, sex, history of IPS, vagal tone activity (i.e., heart rate variability; HRV), and cognitive processing disruptions (i.e., Stroop performance) in either participants who wished a relationship or in those who wished to maintain a relationship post-break-up. Results showed that males were more likely to perpetrate IPS than females. Anxious-style participants were more likely to have perpetrated IPS, showed greater cognitive disruption and HRV than avoidant-style participants. Our results support theories that attachment is a biological imperative with neurobiological implications that can be indexed physiologically and cognitively. This study is the first to demonstrate a pathophysiology of attachment style to IPS, in a replicable way. IPS is discussed as reflective of disordered arousal and related to anxiety. Recommendations for further research and clinically-relevant interventions are presented.

Correlates of Fear of Victimization Among College Students in Spain: Gender Differences and Similarities

Past studies that have analyzed fear of victimization using samples composed of men and women have most frequently controlled for the effect of gender. This study not only controls for the effect of gender, but also examines how the predictors of fear of victimization may vary across gender. To do so, separate regression models for men and women were estimated and the corresponding z tests were calculated for the purpose of analyzing whether the differences between genders were significant. The results showed that women scored higher on the general fear of crime victimization scale, as well as for fear of becoming victims of each of the specific crimes under study. Religiosity had an equally significant effect on men and women's fear of victimization. Also, younger participants were more likely to fear being victims in the cases of both men and women, although this effect was even more pronounced among women. In addition, respondents' fear of victimization differed across gender based on sexual orientation. Finally, the results showed a few variables (political orientation and sexual victimization) that were only significant in the case of women, but not of men. The findings of this study confirm that fear of victimization and its predictors vary between women and men.