The Assessment of Forced Penetration: A Necessary and Further Step Toward Understanding Men's Sexual Victimization and Women's Perpetration

Psychological Symptoms Associated with Sexual Victimization Experiences: Differences as a Function of the Type and Number of Sexual Acts and Aggressive Tactics

Different types of sexual victimization are associated with different outcomes; for example, on average, physically forced sex is associated with worse psychological outcomes than verbally coerced sex. This study evaluated outcomes associated with sexual victimization as a function of sexual act and aggressive tactic, expanding upon the acts and tactics examined in prior studies. Participants who had experienced sexual victimization (N = 402) completed a survey about their most upsetting victimization experience, identifying the sexual act(s) and aggressive tactic(s) that occurred. They completed measures of PTSD, depression, anger, and trauma-related cognitions. Relationships between symptom severity and most upsetting act and tactic, as well as the number of acts and tactics, were analyzed. Related to the sexual act, non-penetrative sexual acts were associated with the lowest symptom severity on several measures. Related to the aggressive tactic, sex obtained through anger/criticism and physical force were associated with the greatest symptom severity on some measures. A larger number of tactics were associated with more severe symptoms on all measures, whereas number of acts only explained unique variance in PTSD symptom severity. The pattern of severity for outcomes differed from previous conceptualizations, suggesting that current hierarchies of victimization severity may require revision.

Gender Differences in Sexual Violence Perpetration Behaviors and Validity of Perpetration Reports: A Mixed-Method Study

The current mixed-method study examined gender differences in sexual violence (SV) perpetration behaviors and the validity of perpetration reports made on the Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Perpetration (SES-SFP). Fifty-four university students (31 women and 23 men) were asked to think out loud while privately completing an online version of the SES-SFP and to describe (typed response) behaviors that they reported having engaged in on the SES. Those who reported no such behavior were asked to describe any similar behaviors they may have engaged in. Integration of the quantitative responses on the SES and the qualitative descriptions of the events reported showed that men's SV perpetration was more frequent and severe than women's. The qualitative event descriptions further suggested that men's verbal coercion was often harsher in tone and that men more often than women used physical force (including in events only reported as verbal coercion on the SES). Unlike men, women often reported that their response to a refusal was not intended to pressure their partner or obtain the sexual activity. Two women also mistakenly reported experiences of their own victimization or compliance (giving in to unwanted sex) on SES perpetration items, which inflated women's SV perpetration rate. Findings suggest that quantitative measurement can miss important qualitative differences in women and men's behaviors and may underestimate men's and overestimate women's SV perpetration. Participants also sometimes misinterpreted or described confusion around the SES items, suggesting a need for updated language on this and other quantitative measures.

Blame and Severity Attributions in Vignette-Based Female-On-Male Rape: The Case of the Victim's Prior Sexual Victimization, Resistance, and Sexual Arousal

This study examines blame attributions of victims and perpetrators in female-on-male rape cases and event severity attributions as affected by three victim-related variables: prior sexual victimization, resistance during the rape, and sexual arousal during the rape. It assesses the relative weight of each of these variables in determining the attribution of blame to the victim and perpetrator and the attribution of severity to the event. The study found that sexual arousal and absence of resistance correlated with higher victim blame attribution, lower perpetrator blame, and lower event severity attributions, while prior sexual victimization had the opposite correlations. We therefore conclude that blame and severity attributions are affected by the victim's behavior prior to the rape and during the rape.

Male Sexual Victimization by Women: Incidence Rates, Mental Health, and Conformity to Gender Norms in a Sample of British Men

Male sexual victimization by women is often neglected within psychological research (Fisher & Pina, 2013). Not only is the topic understudied, incidence rates and associated psychological impacts are inconsistent across the literature (Depraetere et al., 2020; Peterson et al., 2011). The present study provides an additional estimate of male sexual victimization by women, explores its association with victim mental disorders, and examines the potential moderating role of conformity to gender norms. A sample of 1124 heterosexual British men completed an online survey consisting of a modified CDC National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, and measures of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and conformity to masculine norms. In the present sample, 71% of men experienced some form of sexual victimization by a woman at least once during their lifetime. Sexual victimization was significantly associated with anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. However, conformity to masculine gender norms was not a significant moderator between victimization and mental disorders. These findings further illuminate the occurrence of male sexual victimization by women, as well as the importance of continued research on the topic.

A comparison of two strategies to assess sexual violence: general vs. specialised trauma screening strategies in two high-risk substance use health disparity samples

Background/Objective: Using two different high-risk samples, the present study compared and contrasted two different strategies/questionnaire types for assessing a history of sexual violence: a general trauma screening vs. specialised behaviourally-specific questionnaires.Methods: Sample 1 included 91 men and women seeking detoxification treatment services in a publicly funded, urban clinic who completed a trauma and substance use questionnaire battery during treatment. Sample 2 included 310 women at a rural college who completed a trauma and religious coping questionnaire battery for course credit. All participants completed both types of questionnaires: One general trauma screening questionnaire (i.e. the Life Events Checklist [LEC]) and two behaviourally-specific specialised questionnaires (i.e. the 2007 Sexual Experiences Survey [SES] and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire [CTQ]).Results: There were large differences in the cases identified by the behaviourally-specific questionnaires (SES and CTQ) compared to the general trauma screening questionnaire (the LEC) in both samples but few differences in the prevalence rates of sexual violence detected by each questionnaire type. In the detoxification sample, the differences were especially notable for men. Follow-up analyses indicated that degree of traumatisation impacted results likely by increasing participant's willingness to endorse face-valid items on the LEC.Conclusions: For men, the behaviourally-specific questionnaires (SES/CTQ) were necessary to identify cases. For those with more severe trauma histories, the LEC was equivalent to the SES/CTQ in identifying a similar number of sexual violence cases. Thus, clinicians and researchers should consider the population when selecting assessments to identify sexual violence history.

Examining the Psychometric Properties of the Sexual Initiation Strategies Scale (SISS): A New Self-Report Measure of Sexual Aggression Perpetration History

Psychometrically-sound measures of sexual aggression are essential for identifying risk factors for perpetration and examining the behavioral impact of prevention interventions. This project reports on the psychometric evaluation of a new measure of sexual perpetration-the Sexual Initiation Strategies Scale (SISS)-which was designed to correct for weaknesses in prior measures. In Study 1, scores on the SISS demonstrated reasonable convergent and divergent validity and test-rest reliability among a sample of mixed gender college students (N = 575). Participants were more likely to endorse having engaged in sexually aggressive behavior on the SISS than on two other measures of sexual aggression. In Study 2, rates of endorsement on the SISS also were higher than on the most commonly-used measure of perpetration in a community sample of men and women (N = 551) in which gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants were oversampled. In general, the SISS seemed to perform well as a measure of sexual aggression perpetration in both men and women and in those reporting both same- and other-gender sexual aggression. Advantages and disadvantages of the SISS as compared to other measures are discussed.

Exploring the Validity of a Modified Version of the SES-SFV with Students Attending Northern Irish Universities

Compared to US university students, far less is known about the scale of unwanted and non-consensual sexual experiences [USEs] faced by UK university students, particularly those in Northern Ireland [NI]. The Sexual Experiences Survey (Short Form [SEF-SFV]) is considered a popular tool for measuring USEs but has not been updated since 2007; there is some indication that additional perpetrator tactics may be more inclusive of students' experiences and that certain scoring strategies may impact our understanding of data. This paper examines the USEs reported by 1033 students attending either of NI's traditional universities. Participants completed a modified version of the SES-SFV that included two additional perpetration tactics: "ignorance of refusal" and "taken by surprise." Sixty-three percent (n = 650) reported experiencing at least one USE, but this reduced to 53% (n = 546) without the new perpetrator tactics. Female and non-heterosexual students reported significantly more USEs than male and heterosexual students, respectively. "Taken by surprise" was highly endorsed (81%, n = 525) and the most commonly endorsed tactic. Whilst dichotomous scoring is the most straightforward, continuous scoring affords greater analytical opportunities whilst still retaining frequency of USEs. "Taken by surprise" may be a relevant addition but further mixed-methodological research is required to assess its validity among larger and more diverse samples. SES-SFV scoring options should be also validated using male and mixed-gender samples, particularly categorical scoring to ensure current construction is reflective of the wider student experience.

An Experimental Test of the Impact of Varying Questionnaire Response Format on Prevalence Rates for Sexual Violence Victimization and Perpetration

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the impact of a dichotomous versus scaled response format on prevalence rates of sexual violence perpetration and victimization, thus conceptually replicating Hamby et al., 2006 and extending those findings to the context of sexual violence.

METHODS

Two samples were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk and were randomly assigned to either a dichotomous or scaled response format of the same questionnaire. Sample 1 was used to examine perpetration and received a perpetration specific version of the Post-Refusal Sexual Persistence Scale (PRSPS). Sample 2 was used to examine victimization and received a victimization specific version of the PRSPS.

RESULTS

Men and women who received the scaled response format reported significantly more incidents of sexual perpetration, and for each type of tactic studied, on the order of 1.7-9x more frequently. The association between response format condition and prevalence rates of sexual violence victimization was significant only for men (23.0 vs 39.4%) and for the tactic of verbal coercion (30.1 vs 41.5%), with the scaled response format producing greater responding.

CONCLUSIONS

The response format of sexual violence items can significantly alter prevalence rates of sexual violence perpetration, with scaled response formats producing greater endorsements than dichotomous formats. Response format also appears to impact prevalence rates of sexual violence victimization, particularly for men.

The Prevalence of Sexual Violence Perpetration in Sexual Minority Men: A Secondary Analysis of Systematic Review Data

Prior literature illustrates that sexual minority people (e.g., bisexual, gay, queer) are at increased vulnerability for sexual violence victimization compared to heterosexual peers, including while in college. However, the study of sexual violence perpetration in sexual minority populations, much less specifically sexual minority college men, has been neglected. This article reviews the literature and presents a secondary data analysis of a systematic review on college men's sexual perpetration rates and associated methodology. We also conducted analyses to summarize available literature regarding publishing dates, authors, and data inclusivity.

METHODS

We downloaded the dataset and associated materials from Mendeley.com's data archive.

RESULTS

To our surprise, we could not analyze sexual perpetration prevalence rates in sexual minority men using the systematic review data due to absence of reported data across all 77 independent samples including over 5,500 male participants. We found no significant relationship between inclusion of sexual minority men and the use of measurement strategies specialized to assess sexual minority needs. We did find a positive relationship between recency of publication and the inclusion of sexual minority men, r(76) = .24, p = .03, and that most authors/co-authors were women (72%).

CONCLUSIONS

Preventing perpetration is central to ending sexual violence; therefore, future research should include sexual minority people and use appropriate methodology in the investigation of sexual perpetration characteristics and patterns.

Study Title-Based Framing Effects on Reports of Sexual Violence and Associated Risk Factors in College Students

OBJECTIVE

There are many methodological issues in studying sexual violence, including potential framing effects. Framing effects refer to how researchers communicate the purpose of a study to participants, such as, how the study is advertised or explained. The aim of this study was to investigate if framing effects were associated with differences in participants' self-reported experiences of sexual violence and related correlates.

METHODS

College students (N = 782) were recruited to participate in one of four identical studies that differed in the title: "Questionnaires about Alcohol," "Questionnaires about Crime," "Questionnaires about Health," or "Questionnaires about Sexual Assault." Participants chose one of the four studies and completed measures of sexual violence as well as attitudinal and behavioral measures in randomized order.

RESULTS

We found significantly more reports of childhood sexual abuse (33.6% vs. 18.5%), rape (33.9% vs. 21.1%), higher frequency of victimization (M = 11.35 vs. 5.44), and greater acknowledged rape for bisexual people (46.2% vs. 0.0%) in the sexual assault (SA) condition compared to other conditions. There were no differences in sexual violence perpetration or attitudinal or behavioral measures.

CONCLUSION

These results revealed that framing effects, based on the study title, affect outcomes in sexual victimization research. Rape was reported 1.6× more in the "Sexual Assault" condition than in the "Health" condition. It is unclear whether these framing effects reflect self-selection bias or framing related increased reports in the SA condition, suppression of reports in other conditions, or a combination thereof.

The Scope of Rape Victimization and Perpetration Among National Samples of College Students Across 30 years

Research Questions: Rape prevention practice and policy have roots in data from 1985. This study uses 2015 national data to project recent prevalence, assesses whether rates now differ from those of 30 years ago, and disaggregates 2015 prevalence into rape of alcohol incapacitated victims, rapes combining both alcohol and physical tactics, and violent rape. Methods: Cross-sectional analyses were conducted comparing two national samples. The first was collected in 1984-85 (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987); the second was collected 30 years later in 2014-2015. Both surveys used in-person administration and measurement by the most current version at the time of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES). Prevalence rates were compared using Bayesian binomial tests. Results: In 2015, 33.4% (1 in 3) of women reported experiencing rape or attempted rape and 12.7% of men reported perpetration (1 in 8). Using Jeffreys' label for effect size of the Bayes binomial (1961), both results are "decisively" greater than expected given the 1985 benchmarks of 27.9% for victimization and 7.7% for perpetration. Victimization when incapacitated characterized approximately 75% of incidents in 2015 up from 50% in 1985. Cautions apply as cross-sectional data does not establish causality and the recent data set involved the revised SES. Conclusions: Across 30 years, neither containment nor reduction of rape was demonstrated and the increasingly prominent association with alcohol was apparent. Among the men who disclosed raping, 9 of 10 incidents were alcohol-involved. Prevention focus might profitably be directed to constraining alcohol environments and policies that facilitate rape of incapacitated persons and on misconduct responses that are proportional to the harm caused to rape victims, thereby raising the perceived risks of perpetration.

Test-Retest Reliabilities of Four Tactic-first Sexual Violence History Questionnaires

OBJECTIVE

The present study documented, compared, and contrasted the test-retest reliabilities of the victimization and perpetration forms of a Tactic-first Sexual Experiences Survey (T-SESs) and the Post-Refusal Sexual Persistence Scales (PRSPSs).

METHODS

243 Mechanical Turk workers (116 women, 124 men) completed four questionnaires in a randomized order via anonymous web survey at Time 1 and approximately one week later at Time 2.

RESULTS

There were consistent gender differences in test-retest estimates. When assessing a history of victimization in women, both the T-SES and the PRSPS demonstrated evidence of minimal to good reliability (κ > .61, ICC = .86-92) while for men the PRSPS (κ = .64) was more consistent than the T-SES (κ = .59). When assessing a history of perpetration, there were fewer gender differences although post-hoc analyses suggest potential gender differences in assessing substance use facilitated perpetration (κ .48-.83) but were limited by few cases. Continuous scoring approaches were the most reliable, dichotomous scores were mostly reliable, and categorical scores generally did not meet minimal acceptable standards. For the rape victimization acknowledgment items, we found strong evidence of reliability for women (κ = .89, n = 31) and suggestive evidence of reliability for men (n = 7). There were few differences in reliability between standard and extended versions of the questionnaires.

CONCLUSIONS

All four questionnaires exhibited good evidence of one-week test-retest reliability when scored continuously. Evidence of reliability was strongest with the populations and constructs most well studied - victimization history among women and perpetration history among men.

Valid for who? A preliminary investigation of the validity of two sexual victimization questionnaires in men and sexual minorities

The #MeToo movement illuminated vast numbers of people who experienced sexual violence, but the exact scope and impact, especially among under-studied populations (e.g., men and sexual minorities) is unclear, due in part to measurement issues. Our objective was to compare the validity of two measures of sexual violence victimization: The Sexual Experiences Survey - Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV) and The Post-Refusal Sexual Persistence Scale - Victimization (PRSPS-V). Participants were 673 college students who first completed the Rape Empathy for Victims (REM-V) and then the SES-SFV and PRSPS-V (counter-balanced). We found strong evidence of convergent validity for the PRSPS-V with correlations ranging from r = .57 - 88. Convergent validity correlations were strongest for sexual minority women (r = .88) and weakest for heterosexual men (r = .57). We also found evidence of differential validity for the SES-SFV and PRSPS-V. For heterosexual women, rape empathy was correlated to victimization on both questionnaires (r = .25 - .29). However, for heterosexual men, only scores on the SES-SFV were correlated with rape empathy for victims (r = .19). For sexual minorities there appeared to be differences between PRSPS-V only victims and those who reported victimization on both questionnaires in rape empathy (F = 2.65, p = .053). These results provide researchers a starting point for improving these questionnaires to collect more accurate data that helps improve the ability to detect cases of sexual victimization and thus, prevent and heal sexual victimization, especially in understudied populations such as men and sexual minorities.