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McCarthy RJ, Jensen AP, Wilson JP, Rivers AK. Perpetrators', Victims', and Witnesses' Folk Explanations of Aggressive Behaviors. Psychol Rep 2024; 127:721-746. [PMID: 36044991 DOI: 10.1177/00332941221123781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Unsurprisingly, victims and perpetrators often view aggressive behaviors differently. The current study examined whether victims, perpetrators, and witnesses also explained aggressive behaviors differently. The current study included 408 participants who recalled a time when they harmed another person (i.e., perpetrator memory), when another person harmed them (i.e., victim memory), and when they witnessed an aggressive behavior (i.e., witness memory). Replicating past research, participants rated their recalled aggressive behaviors from the victim perspective as being more harmful and less justified than they did for their recalled behaviors from the perpetrator perspective. When examining their explanations for the behaviors, participants most often explained their own aggressive behaviors by referring to their mental deliberations that led to their behavior (i.e., reason explanations). In comparison, they referred to background causal factors (i.e., causal history of reasons explanations)-such as personality traits, demographic factors, cultural norms, etc.-more when explaining others' aggressive behaviors, especially when the explanation was from the victim perspective. These findings show the subtleties in how people communicate about their aggressive interactions: When communicating about their own aggressive behaviors, people use modes of explanations that portray their behaviors as sensible, and when communicating about a time when another person behaved aggressively towards them, people use modes of explanations that omit the thought processes that led to those behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randy J McCarthy
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA
| | - Audra P Jensen
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA
| | - Jared P Wilson
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA
| | - Alison K Rivers
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA
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2
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Molho C, De Petrillo F, Garfield ZH, Slewe S. Cross-societal variation in norm enforcement systems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230034. [PMID: 38244602 PMCID: PMC10799737 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Across human societies, people are sometimes willing to punish norm violators. Such punishment can take the form of revenge from victims, seemingly altruistic intervention from third parties, or legitimized sanctioning from institutional representatives. Although prior work has documented cross-cultural regularities in norm enforcement, substantial variation exists in the prevalence and forms of punishment across societies. Such cross-societal variation may arise from universal psychological mechanisms responding to different socio-ecological conditions, or from cultural evolutionary processes, resulting in different norm enforcement systems. To date, empirical evidence from comparative studies across diverse societies has remained disconnected, owing to a lack of interdisciplinary integration and a prevalent tendency of empirical studies to focus on different underpinnings of variation in norm enforcement. To provide a more complete view of the shared and unique aspects of punishment across societies, we review prior research in anthropology, economics and psychology, and take a first step towards integrating the plethora of socio-ecological and cultural factors proposed to explain cross-societal variation in norm enforcement. We conclude by discussing how future cross-societal research can use diverse methodologies to illuminate key questions on the domain-specificity of punishment, the diversity of tactics supporting social norms, and their role in processes of norm change. This article is part of the theme issue 'Social norm change: drivers and consequences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Molho
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Francesca De Petrillo
- School of Psychology and Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear NE2 4DR, UK
| | - Zachary H. Garfield
- Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse, Université de Toulouse 1 Capitole, Toulouse 31015, France
- Africa Institute for Research in Economics and Social Sciences, Université Mohammed VI Polytechnique, 43150 Rabat, Morocco
| | - Sam Slewe
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Haikola A. Conversations with God: How Are Religion and Spirituality Used to Make Sense of Forgiveness? PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023:1-17. [PMID: 37359497 PMCID: PMC10257375 DOI: 10.1007/s11089-023-01081-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Forgiveness has a connection to religion and spirituality. Yet, little is known about how religious and spiritual people actually forgive. The present study investigated how religion and spirituality are used to make sense of forgiveness. The narratives of seven interviewees were chosen for close analysis of their experiences of forgiveness. McAdams's life story interview method and narrative analysis were applied. Five themes were formulated: (1) forgiveness as Christian duty, (2) forgiveness as God's miracle, (3) forgiveness through praying, (4) forgiveness through God's sacrifice, and (5) forgiveness as God's mercy. The findings indicate that God was important to the interviewees and supported their forgiveness process. Subthemes of revenge and justice suggest that sometimes forgiveness and revenge motives may be intertwined. Forgiveness was a divine process for the participants, and some felt that they would not have been able to forgive without God. Attributing forgiveness to God may serve the forgiveness process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Haikola
- Department of Social Sciences, Social Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1, 70600 Kuopio, Finland
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de Vel-Palumbo M, Twardawski M, Gollwitzer M. Making sense of punishment: Transgressors' interpretation of punishment motives determines the effects of sanctions. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 36892128 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Punishment is expected to have an educative, behaviour-controlling effect on the transgressor. Yet, this effect often remains unattained. Here, we test the hypothesis that transgressors' inferences about punisher motives crucially shape transgressors' post-punishment attitudes and behaviour. As such, we give primacy to the social and relational dimensions of punishment in explicating how sanctions affect outcomes. Across four studies using different methodologies (N = 1189), our findings suggest that (a) communicating punishment respectfully increases transgressor perceptions that the punisher is trying to repair the relationship between the transgressor and their group (relationship-oriented motive) and reduces perceptions of harm-oriented and self-serving motives, and that (b) attributing punishment to relationship-oriented (vs. harm/self-oriented, or even victim-oriented) motives increases prosocial attitudes and behaviour. This research consolidates and extends various theoretical perspectives on interactions in justice settings, providing suggestions for how best to deliver sanctions to transgressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa de Vel-Palumbo
- College of Business, Government and Law, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Mathias Twardawski
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Mario Gollwitzer
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
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Wenzel M, Harous C, Cibich M, Woodyatt L. Does victims' forgiveness help offenders to forgive themselves? The role meta-perceptions of value consensus. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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Thai M, Wenzel M, Okimoto TG. Turning Tables: Offenders Feel Like "Victims" When Victims Withhold Forgiveness. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023; 49:233-250. [PMID: 34964377 DOI: 10.1177/01461672211062401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
When offenders apologize to victims for a wrongdoing, they often expect forgiveness in return. Sometimes, however, victims may withhold forgiveness. Across four experimental studies, we find that offenders feel like "victims" when victims respond to their apologies with non-forgiveness. This can be explained by the fact that they interpret non-forgiveness as both a norm violation and a threat to their sense of power. Together, these mechanisms can account for the relationship between non-forgiveness and negative conciliatory sentiments in offenders. These effects of non-forgiveness emerge irrespective of whether the transgression is recalled (Study 1) or imagined (Studies 2-4). They are specific to non-forgiveness rather than a lack of explicit forgiveness (Study 3), and are not qualified by subtle prods for participants to take the victim's perspective (Study 4). These findings demonstrate a destructive response pattern in offenders that warrants further attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Thai
- The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Michael Wenzel
- Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Tyler G Okimoto
- The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
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Van Houwelingen G, Van Dijke M, Hoogervorst N, Meijs L, De Cremer D. Two Sides of the Same Coin: Punishment and Forgiveness in Organizational Contexts. Front Psychol 2022; 13:908021. [PMID: 35865698 PMCID: PMC9295746 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.908021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Punishment and forgiveness are two very different responses to a moral transgression that both have been argued to restore perceptions of moral order within an organization. Unfortunately, it is currently unclear what motivates organizational actors to punish or forgive a norm transgressor. We build on social cognitive theory to argue that punishment and forgiveness of a transgressor are both rooted in self-regulatory processes. Specifically, we argue that organizational actors are more likely to respond to intentional transgressions with punishment, and to unintentional transgressions with forgiveness. However, these effects of transgressor intentionality should be found in particular among actors for whom moral identity is central (vs. peripheral). We find support for these predictions in a laboratory experiment and a field study among organizational leaders. By simultaneously studying punishment and forgiveness in organizational settings, we provide crucial insight in their shared motivational bases, as well as into important differences between the two.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs Van Houwelingen
- Amsterdam Business School, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Gijs Van Houwelingen,
| | - Marius Van Dijke
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Niek Hoogervorst
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Lucas Meijs
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - David De Cremer
- NUS Business School, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Adams GS, O'Connor KS, Belmi P. Social perception in moral judgments of interpersonal transgressions. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:177-181. [PMID: 34688999 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Moral judgments about interpersonal transgressions are shaped by attributions about the actor's mental state (intent), responsibility, and harmful consequences. Curiously, most research has investigated these judgments from a third-party perspective, often overlooking perceptions of the individuals directly involved in the transgression. We address this by reviewing research on how victims and transgressors involved in interpersonal transgressions form judgments about the transgressor's intent, responsibility, and how much harm was caused, and the ways in which victims' and transgressors' judgments diverge from one another. Our review indicates that both cognitive biases and motivation-based differences give rise to asymmetries. We argue that future research could investigate not only social perceptions but also meta-perceptions and that a better understanding of the content and causes of divergent interpersonal perceptions in this domain will lead to a more complete understanding of how to resolve conflicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle S Adams
- Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy, University of Virginia, USA; Darden School of Business, University of Virginia, USA.
| | | | - Peter Belmi
- Darden School of Business, University of Virginia, USA
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Interpersonal transgressions and psychological loss: Understanding moral repair as dyadic, reciprocal, and interactionist. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:7-11. [PMID: 34534843 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Following interpersonal transgressions, both victims and offenders can experience psychological loss owing to threatened needs for agency and moral-social identity. Moral repair is the process by which these losses are restored. Rather than involving only intraindividual static processes, research is starting to recognize that moral repair is dyadic, reciprocal, and interactionist. It involves the victim and offender coengaging with one another, reciprocally responding to the other's psychological needs, and coconstructing a shared understanding of what has occurred, their relationship, and a way forward. Each of these steps represents periods of vulnerability where the losses of a transgression can be repaired - or exacerbated.
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