The diagnostic accuracy of dementia-screening instruments with an administration time of 10 to 45 minutes for use in secondary care: a systematic review

Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer: Focus on Cognitive Function and Mood

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in men in the United States. Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is currently the primary treatment for metastatic prostate cancer, and some studies have shown that the use of anti-androgen drugs is related to a reduction in cognitive function, mood changes, diminished quality of life, dementia, and possibly Alzheimer's disease. ADT has potential physiological effects such as a reduction in white matter integrity and a negative impact on hypothalamic functions due to the lowering of testosterone levels or the blockade of downstream androgen receptor signaling by first- and second-generation anti-androgen drugs. A comparative analysis of prostate cancer patients undergoing ADT and Alzheimer patients identified over 30 shared genes, illustrating common ground for the mechanistic underpinning of the symptomatology. The purpose of this review was to investigate the effects of ADT on cognitive function, mood, and quality of life, as well as to analyze the relationship between ADT and Alzheimer's disease. The evaluation of prostate cancer patient cognitive ability via neurocognitive testing is described. Future studies should further explore the connection among cognitive deficits, mood disturbances, and the physiological changes that occur when hormonal balance is altered.

The Patient Voice: Exploring Treatment Preferences in Participants with Mild Cognitive Concerns to Inform Regulatory Decision Making

Objective

We aimed to assess the feasibility of developing a discrete-choice experiment survey to elicit preferences for a treatment to delay cognitive decline among people with a clinical syndrome consistent with early Alzheimer’s disease, including the development of self-reported screening criteria to recruit the sample.

Methods

Using input from qualitative interviews, we developed a discrete-choice experiment survey containing a multifaceted beneficial treatment attribute related to slowing cognitive decline for respondents with self-reported cognitive concerns. In two rounds of in-person pretest interviews, we tested and revised the survey text and discrete-choice experiment questions, including examples, language, and levels associated with the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale, along with a set of de novo self-reported questions for identifying respondents who had neither too mild nor too advanced cognitive decline. Self-reported memory and thinking problems were compared with symptoms from studies of patients with early Alzheimer’s disease (e.g., mild cognitive impairment, mild Alzheimer’s disease) to determine whether those studies’ recruited patients were similar to our anticipated target population. Round 1 pretest interviews resulted in significant simplifications in the survey instrument, revisions to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and revisions to the screening process. In round 2 of the pretest interviews, the ability of participants to provide consistent responses to the self-reported screening questions was further assessed. In addition, to evaluate participants’ ability to understand and independently complete the discrete-choice experiment survey, two interviewers independently evaluated each participant’s ability to make trade-offs in the discrete-choice experiment questions and to understand the content of the survey.

Results

Round 1 (15 pretest interviews) identified challenges with the survey instrument related to the complexity of the choice questions. The screening process did not screen out seven respondents with more advanced cognitive decline, as determined qualitatively by the interviewers and by these participants’ inability to complete the survey. The survey instrument and screening criteria were revised, and an initial online screener was added to the screening process before round 2 pretests. In round 2 pretests, 12 participants reported cognitive problems similar to the target population for the survey but were judged able to understand and independently complete the discrete-choice experiment survey.

Conclusions

We developed self-reported screening criteria that identified a sample of individuals with memory and thinking concerns who were similar to individuals with clinical symptoms of early Alzheimer’s disease and who were able to independently complete a simplified discrete-choice experiment survey. Quantitative patient preference studies provide important information on patients’ willingness to trade off treatment benefits/risks. Adapting the technique for patients with cognitive decline requires careful testing and adjustments to survey instruments. This work suggests it is the severity of cognitive impairment, rather than its presence, that determines the ability to complete a simplified discrete-choice experiment survey.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40271-022-00576-w.

Regression-Based Normative Data for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Its Memory Index Score (MoCA-MIS) for Individuals Aged 18–91

(1) Background: There is a need for a brief assessment of cognitive function, both in patient care and scientific research, for which the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a psychometrically reliable and valid tool. However, fine-grained normative data allowing for adjustment for age, education, and/or sex are lacking, especially for its Memory Index Score (MIS). (2) Methods: A total of 820 healthy individuals aged 18–91 (366 men) completed the Dutch MoCA (version 7.1), of whom 182 also completed the cued recall and recognition memory subtests enabling calculation of the MIS. Regression-based normative data were computed for the MoCA Total Score and MIS, following the data-handling procedure of the Advanced Neuropsychological Diagnostics Infrastructure (ANDI). (3) Results: Age, education level, and sex were significant predictors of the MoCA Total Score (Conditional R² = 0.4, Marginal R² = 0.12, restricted maximum likelihood (REML) criterion at convergence: 3470.1) and MIS (Marginal R² = 0.14, REML criterion at convergence: 682.8). Percentile distributions are presented that allow for age, education and sex adjustment for the MoCA Total Score and the MIS. (4) Conclusions: We present normative data covering the full adult life span that can be used for the screening for overall cognitive deficits and memory impairment, not only in older people with or people at risk of neurodegenerative disease, but also in younger individuals with acquired brain injury, neurological disease, or non-neurological medical conditions.

Comparing drawing under instructions with image copying for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia screening: a meta-analysis of 92 diagnostic studies

OBJECTIVES

Drawing is a major component of cognitive screening for dementia. It can be performed without language restriction. Drawing pictures under instructions and copying images are different screening approaches. The objective of this study was to compare the diagnostic performance between drawing under instructions and image copying for MCI and dementia screening.

METHOD

A literature search was carried out in the OVID databases with keywords related to drawing for cognitive screening. Study quality and risk of bias were assessed by QUADAS-2. The level of diagnostic accuracy across different drawing tests was pooled by bivariate analysis in a random effects model. The area under the hierarchical summary receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) was constructed to summarize the diagnostic performance.

RESULTS

Ninety-two studies with sample size of 22,085 were included. The pooled results for drawing under instructions showed a sensitivity of 79% (95% CI: 76 - 83%) and a specificity of 80% (95% CI: 77 - 83%) with AUC of 0.87 (95% CI: 0.83 - 0.89). The pooled results for image copying showed a sensitivity of 71% (95% CI: 62 - 79%) and a specificity of 83% (95% CI: 72 - 90%) with AUC of 0.83 (95% CI: 0.80 - 0.86). Clock-drawing test was the screening test used in the majority of studies.

CONCLUSION

Drawing under instructions showed a similar diagnostic performance when compared with image copying for cognitive screening and the administration of image copying is relatively simpler. Self-screening for dementia is feasible to be done at home in the near future.

Cognitive Profile of the Logopenic Variant of Primary Progressive Aphasia Using the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia (lvPPA) is characterized by impaired word-finding and sentence repetition with phonologic errors but spared motor speech and grammar and semantic knowledge. Although its language deficits have been well studied, the full spectrum of cognitive changes in the lvPPA remains to be defined. We aimed to explore the neurocognitive profile of the lvPPA using a newly developed cognitive screening tool for atypical dementias, the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec (DCQ).

METHODS

We compared 29 patients with lvPPA to 72 amnestic variant Alzheimer disease (aAD) to 438 healthy control (HC) participants. Performance on the 5 indexes of the DCQ (Memory, Visuospatial, Executive, Language and Behavioral) was compared between the 3 groups.

RESULTS

Results showed a significantly lower performance for lvPPA participants in all neurocognitive domains, when compared to HC. When compared to aAD, lvPPA participants had significantly lower scores for language, executive, and visuospatial abilities, but not for memory and behavior.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, these findings better define the neurocognitive changes of lvPPA.

Validation of the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec in the Oldest Old

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to validate the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec (DCQ; www.dcqtest.org), a new cognitive screening tool for atypical degenerative syndromes, in the oldest old.

METHODS

The DCQ was developed by expert behavioural neurologists and clinical neuropsychologists based on updated criteria for Alzheimer's disease, primary progressive aphasia, and behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia. It targets five relevant cognitive domains: Memory, Visuospatial, Executive, Language, and Behaviour. Validation was performed using a prospective community-based sample consisting of 53 healthy French-speaking Canadian volunteers aged between 80 and 94 years old. Normative data were derived from participants with no history of cognitive difficulties and a Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) score ≥ 24.

RESULTS

The mean DCQ total score (out of 100) was 84.65 (SD = 6.33). Pearson's correlation coefficient showed a moderate, but significant, correlation (r = 0.36, p < .01) with the MoCA. Normative data shown in percentiles were stratified by age and education for DCQ total score and for each of the five cognitive domains.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the DCQ is a valid cognitive screening test in the oldest old. It is proposed that the DCQ can help early identification of atypical degenerative syndromes.

Features and psychometric properties of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: Review and proposal of a process-based approach version (MoCA-PA)

The current study presents a rapid review of the psychometric features of the standard Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and the proposal for a modified version of the test, informed by the methodology of the Boston Process Approach to neuropsychological assessment. In order to aid the process of identification of the primary underlying neurocognitive mechanism responsible for defective test performance, the MoCA-Process-Based Approach (MoCA-PA) adds complementary or satellite test conditions in some of its subtests, includes "new" qualitative indices to capture the cognitive processes involved in each cognitive task, and incorporates new qualitative classifications of error subtypes. It provides concurrent assessment of multiple cognitive processes within each task, without significantly increasing administration time or placing significant additional burden upon the respondent. We present preliminary results obtained from an initial sample of 45 community-dwelling older adults attending a University program for seniors. Results suggest the usefulness of additional indices in providing additional information on cognitive deterioration that may be overlooked with the only consideration of quantitative scores. Future research will aim to collect normative data for different clinical populations using the newly developed indices in order to determine the validity and clinical utility of the relatively novel qualitative process-based methods used in the MoCA-PA.

Validity of screening instruments for the detection of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in hospital inpatients: A systematic review of diagnostic accuracy studies

INTRODUCTION

As the population ages, Alzheimer's disease and other subtypes of dementia are becoming increasingly prevalent. However, in recent years, diagnosis has often been delayed or not made at all. Thus, improving the rate of diagnosis has become an integral part of national dementia strategies. Although screening for dementia remains controversial, the case is strong for screening for dementia and other forms of cognitive impairment in hospital inpatients. For this reason, the objective of this systematic review was to provide clinicians, who wish to implement screening, an up-to-date choice of cognitive tests with the most extensive evidence base for the use in elective hospital inpatients.

METHODS

For this systematic review, PubMed, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library were searched by using a multi-concept search strategy. The databases were accessed on April 10, 2019. All cross-sectional studies that utilized brief, multi-domain cognitive tests as index test and a reference standard diagnosis of dementia or mild cognitive impairment as comparator were included. Only studies conducted in the hospital setting, sampling from unselected, elective inpatients older than 64 were considered.

RESULTS

Six studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 2112 participants. Diagnostic accuracy data for the Six-Item Cognitive Impairment Test, Cognitive Performance Scale, Clock-Drawing Test, Mini-Mental Status Examination, and Time & Change test were extracted and descriptively analyzed. Clinical and methodological heterogeneity between the studies precluded performing a meta-analysis.

DISCUSSION

This review found only a small number of instruments and was not able to recommend a single best instrument for use in a hospital setting. Although it was not possible to estimate the pooled operating characteristics, the included description of instrument characteristics, the descriptive analysis of performance measures, and the critical evaluation of the reporting studies may contribute to clinician's choice of the screening instrument that fits best their purpose.

Screening for Cognitive Impairment in Geriatrics

There are many instruments for screening cognitive impairment. The common tools for screening cognitive impairment are categorized into 4 groups (very brief, brief, self-administered, and test batteries) in geriatrics. There are some tests used for specific tests of 6 cognitive domains (learning and memory, language, executive function, complex attention, and social cognition) by following the DSM-V criteria. Different settings, stages, conditions, and specific people need some specific tools for screening cognitive impairment. It must be noted that there is some harm in screening for cognitive impairment in geriatrics.

Role of GTPases in the Regulation of Mitochondrial Dynamics in Alzheimer's Disease and CNS-Related Disorders

Data obtained from several studies have shown that mitochondria are involved and play a central role in the progression of several distinct pathological conditions. Morphological alterations and disruptions on the functionality of mitochondria may be related to metabolic and energy deficiency in neurons in a neurodegenerative disorder. Several recent studies demonstrate the linkage between neurodegeneration and mitochondrial dynamics in the spectrum of a promising era called precision mitochondrial medicine. In this review paper, an analysis of the correlation between mitochondria, Alzheimer's disease, and other central nervous system (CNS)-related disorders like the Parkinson's disease and the autism spectrum disorder is under discussion. The role of GTPases like the mfn1, mfn2, opa1, and dlp1 in mitochondrial fission and fusion is also under investigation, influencing mitochondrial population and leading to oxidative stress and neuronal damage.

Impaired Cognitive Functioning in Cochlear Implant Recipients Over the Age of 55 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study Using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status for Hearing-Impaired Individuals (RBANS-H)

Primary Objective: To compare cognitive functioning among experienced, unilateral cochlear implant (CI) recipients and normal-hearing (NH) controls by means of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status for Hearing-impaired individuals (RBANS-H).

Methods: Sixty-one post-lingually and bilaterally severely hearing-impaired CI recipients (median age: 71.0, range: 58.3 to 93.9 years) with at least 1 year of CI experience (median: 12.4, range: 1.1 to 18.6 years) and 81 NH control participants (median age: 69.9, range: 50.1 to 87.1 years) took part in this cross-sectional study. The RBANS-H was performed, as well as an audiometric assessment, including best-aided speech audiometry in quiet (monosyllabic words) and in noise (Leuven Intelligibility Sentences test).

Results: The RBANS-H performances of the CI recipients (mean: 88.1 ± 14.9) were significantly poorer than the those of the NH participants (mean: 100.5 ± 13.2), with correction of age, sex, and education differences (general linear model: p = 0.001). The mean difference, corrected for the effects of these three demographic factors, was 8.8 (± 2.5) points. Additionally, in both groups, a significant correlation was established between overall cognition and speech perception, both in quiet and in noise, independently of age.

Conclusion: Experienced, unilateral CI recipients present subnormal cognitive functioning, beyond the effect of age, sex and education. This has implications for auditory rehabilitation after CI and may highlight the need for additional cognitive rehabilitation in the long term after implantation. Long-term prospective and longitudinal investigations are imperative to improve our understanding of cognitive aging in severely hearing-impaired individuals receiving CIs and its association with CI outcomes.

Validation of the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec: A New Cognitive Screening Tool for Atypical Dementias

Objective

This study aimed to validate and provide normative data for the Dépistage Cognitif de Québec (DCQ; www.dcqtest.org), a new cognitive screening tool for atypical dementias.

Method

The DCQ was developed by expert behavioral neurologists and clinical neuropsychologists based on updated criteria for Alzheimer's disease, primary progressive aphasia, and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia. It targets five relevant domains: Memory, Visuospatial, Executive, Language, and Behavior. Validation was performed in a population-based sample of 410 healthy French-speaking Canadians aged between 50 and 89 years old. Normative data were derived from a subsample of 285 participants.

Results

Mean DCQ total score (out of 100) was 89.17 (SD = 7.36). Pearson's correlation coefficient showed a strong and significant correlation (r = .71, p < .001) with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Internal consistency for the cognitive domains assessed by Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory (.74). Test-retest reliability was adequate (Pearson's coefficient = . 70, p < .001) and interrater reliability, excellent (intraclass correlation = .99, p < .001). Normative data shown in percentiles were stratified by age and education.

Conclusions

This study suggests that the DCQ is a valid and reliable cognitive screening test. Application of the DCQ on populations with atypical dementias is underway to derive sensitivity and specificity values for various dementias.

Differentiating Patients at the Memory Clinic With Simple Reaction Time Variables: A Predictive Modeling Approach Using Support Vector Machines and Bayesian Optimization

Background: Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and dementia differ in important ways yet share a future of increased prevalence. Separating these conditions from each other, and from Subjective Cognitive Impairment (SCI), is important for clinical prognoses and treatment, socio-legal interventions, and family adjustments. With costly clinical investigations and an aging population comes a need for more cost-efficient differential diagnostics. Methods: Using supervised machine learning, we investigated nine variables extracted from simple reaction time (SRT) data with respect to their single and conjoined ability to discriminate both MCI/dementia, and SCI/MCI/dementia, compared to-and together with-established psychometric tests. One-hundred-twenty elderly patients (age range = 65-95 years) were recruited when referred to full neuropsychological assessment at a specialized memory clinic in urban Sweden. A freely available SRT task served as index test and was administered and scored objectively by a computer before diagnosis of SCI (n = 17), MCI (n = 53), or dementia (n = 50). As reference standard, diagnosis was decided through the multidisciplinary memory clinic investigation. Bonferroni-Holm corrected P-values for constructed models against the null model are provided. Results: Algorithmic feature selection for the two final multivariable models was performed through recursive feature elimination with 3 × 10-fold cross-validation resampling. For both models, this procedure selected seven predictors of which five were SRT variables. When used as input for a soft-margin, radial-basis support vector machine model tuned via Bayesian optimization, the leave-one-out cross-validated accuracy of the final model for MCI/dementia classification was good (Accuracy = 0.806 [0.716, INS [0].877], P < 0.001) and the final model for SCI/MCI/dementia classification held some merit (Accuracy = 0.650 [0.558, 0.735], P < 0.001). These two models are implemented in a freely available application for research and educatory use. Conclusions: Simple reaction time variables hold some potential in conjunction with established psychometric tests for differentiating MCI/dementia, and SCI/MCI/dementia in these difficult-to-differentiate memory clinic patients. While external validation is needed, their implementation within diagnostic support systems is promising.

Does Otovestibular Loss in the Autosomal Dominant Disorder DFNA9 Have an Impact of on Cognition? A Systematic Review

Background and Purpose: Cognitive impairment has been observed in patients with bilateral vestibular loss (BVL) and in patients with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). DFNA9 is an autosomal dominant disorder that causes a combination of both sensory deficits by the 3rd to 5th decade. We therefore hypothesize a combined detrimental effect on cognition. The aim of this systematic review was to identify studies related to DFNA9 in general and its relationship with cognitive impairment more specifically.

Materials and Methods: Several databases including Medline, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Web of Science were searched to accumulate information about DFNA9-mutations, including phenotype, genotype, pathophysiology, quality of life (QOL), and imaging in general and cognitive function more specifically. A qualitative analysis was performed on the 55 articles that qualified.

Results: The clinical features of DFNA9 are different along the 24 COCH mutations, described up to now. Vestibular symptoms generally present themselves a few years after SNHL onset in mutations associated with the vWFA-domain although they can precede SNHL onset in other mutations associated with the LCCL-domain. QoL has not been studied extensively in DFNA9, although scarce work is available on the positive impact of cochlear implantation to rehabilitate hearing. No studies were found evaluating cognition in DFNA9 patients.

Conclusion: Although cognitive impairment has been demonstrated in patients with hearing loss as well as in patients with BVL, no studies have been reported on the combination of both sensory deficits, such as in DFNA9. Further research is warranted to correlate otovestibular status with cognition.

Relationships Between Neighborhood Social Capital and The Occurrence of Outdoor Falls in Canadian Older Adults: A Multilevel Analysis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine whether neighborhood-level social capital is a risk factor for falls outside of the home in older adults.

METHODS

Health questionnaires were completed by community-dwelling Canadians aged +65 years living in Kingston (Ontario) and St-Hyacinthe (Quebec), supplemented by neighborhood-level census data. Multilevel logistic regression models with random intercepts were fit. Variations in the occurrence of falls across neighborhoods were quantified by median odds ratio and 80% interval odds ratio.

RESULTS

Between-neighborhood differences explained 7% of the variance in the occurrence of falls; this variance decreased to 2% after adjustment for neighborhood-level variables. In the fully adjusted models, higher levels of social capital increased the odds of falls by almost 2 times: (odds ratio [OR] = 2.10, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.19, 3.71]).

DISCUSSION

Living in neighborhoods with higher levels of social capital was associated with higher risk of falling in older adults, possibly through more involvement in social activities.

Multicenter Validation of an MMSE-MoCA Conversion Table

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence points to the superiority of the MoCA over the MMSE as a cognitive screening tool. To facilitate the transition from the MMSE to the MoCA in clinical and research settings, authors have developed MMSE-MoCA conversion tables. However, it is unknown whether a conversion table generated from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients would apply to patients with other dementia subtypes like vascular dementia or frontotemporal dementia. Furthermore, the reliability and accuracy of MMSE-MoCA conversion tables has not been properly evaluated.

METHOD

We retrospectively examined the MMSE-MoCA relationship in a large multicenter sample gathered from 3 Memory Clinics in Quebec, Canada (1492 patients). We produced an MMSE-MoCA conversion table using the equi-percentile method with log-linear smoothing. We then cross-validated our conversion table with the ADNI dataset (1202 patients) and evaluated its accuracy for future predictions.

RESULTS

The MMSE-MoCA conversion table is consistent with previously published tables and has an intra-class correlation of 0.633 with the ADNI sample. However, we found that the MMSE-MoCA relationship is significantly modified by diagnosis (P < .01), with dementia subtypes associated with a dysexecutive syndrome showing a trend towards higher MMSE than other dementia syndromes for a given MoCA score. The large width of 95% confidence interval (CI) for a new prediction suggests questionable reliability for clinical use.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we validated a conversion table between MMSE and MoCA using a large multicenter sample. Our results suggest caution in interpreting the tables in heterogeneous clinical populations, as the MMSE-MoCA relationship may be different across dementia subtypes.

Relations between Concurrent Longitudinal Changes in Cognition, Depressive Symptoms, Self-Rated Health and Everyday Function in Normally Aging Octogenarians

Ability to predict and prevent incipient functional decline in older adults may help prolong independence. Cognition is related to everyday function and easily administered, sensitive cognitive tests may help identify at-risk individuals. Factors like depressive symptoms and self-rated health are also associated with functional ability and may be as important as cognition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between concurrent longitudinal changes in cognition, depression, self-rated health and everyday function in a well-defined cohort of healthy 85 year olds that were followed-up at the age of 90 in the Elderly in Linköping Screening Assessment 85 study. Regression analyses were used to determine if cognitive decline as assessed by global (the Mini-Mental State Examination) and domain specific (the Cognitive Assessment Battery, CAB) cognitive tests predicted functional decline in the context of changes in depressive symptoms and self-rated health. Results showed deterioration in most variables and as many as 83% of these community-dwelling elders experienced functional difficulties at the age of 90. Slowing-down of processing speed as assessed by the Symbol Digits Modality Test (included in the CAB) accounted for 14% of the variance in functional decline. Worsening self-rated health accounted for an additional 6%, but no other variables reached significance. These results are discussed with an eye to possible preventive interventions that may prolong independence for the steadily growing number of normally aging old-old citizens.

[Validation of the Seven Minute Screen for use in a memory clinic]

Cognitive tests play a crucial part in the assessment of dementia. In 1998 the Seven Minute Screen was developed by Solomon and colleagues. The test was originally designed to distinguish between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and normal ageing, and research showed that the instrument is highly sensitive to AD. Subsequent research also proved the diagnostic accuracy of the Seven Minute Screen in the detection of other common types of dementia, such as vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. This article reports new research on the predictive validity of the Seven Minute Screen using 289 cognitively intact subjects, 175 patients with MCI and 563 patients with dementia in the setting of a memory clinic. In addition, a comparison is made with the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). The study demonstrates that the Seven Minute Screen is a valuable screening instrument for all common types of dementia, and it has added value to the MMSE. The sensitivity for dementia is 96 % and the specificity 93 %, in comparison to 69 and 98 % for the MMSE (< 24). The sensitivity for the various types of dementia is consistently high, ranging from 92 % for a subcortical dementia to 97 % for AD. The Seven Minute Screen requires little training, and combines a short administration time with a high diagnostic accuracy. This makes the Seven Minute Screen useful for application in memory clinics.

Strengths and Limitations of the MoCA for Assessing Cognitive Functioning: Findings From a Large Representative Sample of Irish Older Adults

BACKGROUND

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a very widely used test for mild cognitive impairment. Differing recommendations have been made regarding its utility in providing a profile of performance across several cognitive domains.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the factor structure of the MoCA in a nationally representative population study of older Irish adults and evaluate its utility in providing domain-specific information.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis of wave 1 data from the Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing was undertaken. Data from a subset of 2342 participants assessed using the MoCA were analyzed using both confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) and exploratory factor analytic (EFA) methods.

RESULTS

Mean age was 72.64 (range 65 to 98), 53% female. The CFA provided evidence of adequate overall model fit for a previously proposed 6-factor model. In contrast, EFA yielded a 3-factor solution and test items cross-loaded onto a number of factors with no clear pattern of underlying cognitive domains. Using EFA to explore the 6-factor model yielded good fit, but again test items cross-loaded onto a number of factors with no clear pattern evident.

CONCLUSION

Lack of concordance between the CFA and EFA findings demonstrates that the correspondence between individual tests and their assumed cognitive domains is not robust, reflecting at least in part a current lack of consensus on how core cognitive constructs are defined and on what subcomponents can be subsumed under different cognitive domains. The MoCA should not be viewed as a substitute for more in-depth neuropsychological assessment when domain-specific information is required.

An investigation of the efficiency of the mini-Kingston standardized cognitive assessment-revised in classifying patients according to DSM-5 major and mild neurocognitive disorders due to possible Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to examine the efficiency of the mini-Kingston standardized cognitive assessment-revised (mini-KSCAr) in classifying patients according to DSM-5 major and mild neurocognitive disorders (NCD) due to possible Alzheimer's disease (AD).

METHODS

Files of 85 individuals who were tested on the Kingston standardized cognitive assessment-revised were reviewed and scores were calculated for the mini-KSCAr. Medical history, psychiatric and physical status, basic and instrumental activities of daily living, as well as scores on the Cambridge cognitive examination-revised (CAMCOG-R), and the clinical dementia rating (CDR) scale were used to establish DSM-5 diagnoses of major or mild neurocognitive disorders (NCD) due to possible AD or no cognitive decline. All participants were tested on the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the clock drawing test (CDT), and a subset (N = 28) were also tested on three well-known memory tasks.

RESULTS

Scores on the MMSE, CDT, and mini-KSCAr differed across groups, but only the mini-KSCAr significantly distinguished each group from the other two. The mini-KSCAr showed better sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios (LRs) than did the MMSE and the CDT. A regression analysis revealed that the mini-KSCAr accounted for almost half of the variance in memory performance, whereas the MMSE and the CDT contributed nothing to this prediction once the mini-KSCAr was used.

CONCLUSIONS

The mini-KSCAr is an efficient instrument for the diagnosis of DSM-5 major and mild NCD due to possible AD in a specialized psychogeriatric setting, and its utility is greater than that of the MMSE and the CDT.

Diagnostic tools for alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias: an overview of diagnostic test accuracy (DTA) systematic reviews

BACKGROUND

Dementia includes a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by progressive loss of cognitive function and a decrease in the ability to perform activities of daily living. Systematic reviews of diagnostic test accuracy (DTA) focus on how well the index test detects patients with the disease in terms of figures such as sensitivity and specificity. Although DTA reviews about dementia are essential, at present there is no information about their quantity and quality.

METHODS

We searched for DTA reviews in MEDLINE (1966-2013), EMBASE (1980-2013), The Cochrane Library (from its inception until December 2013) and the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE). Two reviewers independently assessed the methodological quality of the reviews using the AMSTAR measurement tool, and the quality of the reporting using the PRISMA checklist. We describe the main characteristics of these reviews, including basic characteristics, type of dementia, and diagnostic test evaluated, and we summarize the AMSTAR and PRISMA scores.

RESULTS

We selected 24 DTA systematic reviews. Only 10 reviews (41.6%), assessed the bias of included studies and few (33%) used this information to report the review results or to develop their conclusions Only one review (4%) reported all methodological items suggested by the PRISMA tool. Assessing methodology quality by means of the AMSTAR tool, we found that six DTA reviews (25%) pooled primary data with the aid of methods that are used for intervention reviews, such as Mantel-Haenszel and separate random-effects models (25%), while five reviews (20.8%) assessed publication bias by means of funnel plots and/or Egger's Test.

CONCLUSIONS

Our assessment of these DTA reviews reveals that their quality, both in terms of methodology and reporting, is far from optimal. Assessing the quality of diagnostic evidence is fundamental to determining the validity of the operating characteristics of the index test and its usefulness in specific settings. The development of high quality DTA systematic reviews about dementia continues to be a challenge.

Review of brief cognitive tests for patients with suspected dementia

BACKGROUND

As the population ages, it is increasingly important to use effective short cognitive tests for suspected dementia. We aimed to review systematically brief cognitive tests for suspected dementia and report on their validation in different settings, to help clinicians choose rapid and appropriate tests.

METHODS

Electronic search for face-to-face sensitive and specific cognitive tests for people with suspected dementia, taking ≤ 20 minutes, providing quantitative psychometric data.

RESULTS

22 tests fitted criteria. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) had good psychometric properties in primary care. In the secondary care settings, MMSE has considerable data but lacks sensitivity. 6-Item Cognitive Impairment Test (6CIT), Brief Alzheimer's Screen, HVLT, and 7 Minute Screen have good properties for detecting dementia but need further validation. Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination (ACE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment are effective to detect dementia with Parkinson's disease and Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised (ACE-R) is useful for all dementias when shorter tests are inconclusive. Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment scale (RUDAS) is useful when literacy is low. Tests such as Test for Early Detection of Dementia, Test Your Memory, Cognitive Assessment Screening Test (CAST) and the recently developed ACE-III show promise but need validation in different settings, populations, and dementia subtypes. Validation of tests such as 6CIT, Abbreviated Mental Test is also needed for dementia screening in acute hospital settings.

CONCLUSIONS

Practitioners should use tests as appropriate to the setting and individual patient. More validation of available tests is needed rather than development of new ones.

Clinical validation of the WMS-IV-NL brief cognitive status exam (BCSE) in older adults with MCI or dementia

ABSTRACT Background: The Brief Cognitive Status Exam (BCSE) is a new, optional subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale-IV (WMS-IV) developed for rapid detection of cognitive deficits. We examined the clinical validation of the Dutch version of the BCSE in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia, comparing it to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Method: BCSE and MMSE were administered in 39 older adults with MCI, 51 with dementia and 96 matched healthy controls. Results: Our results show that the BCSE is a valid screening instrument, with psychometric properties similar to the widely used MMSE. High correlations were found between the BCSE and MMSE (r = 0.79, n = 183, p < 0.001). Furthermore, a BCSE cut-off score ≤ 42 revealed a sensitivity of 96% a specificity of 92%, a positive predictive value of 86% and a negative predictive value of 97%, whereas the MMSE cut-off score of ≤ 24 showed values of 84%, 96%, 91%, and 92%, respectively. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values to detect MCI compared to controls was 81%, 80%, 61%, and 92%, respectively, on the BCSE, with a cut-off score of ≤ 46, and 84%, 76%, 57%, and 92%, respectively, on the MMSE, with a cut-off score of ≤ 27. Conclusions: The Dutch version of the BCSE is a clinically valid screening instrument for the detection of cognitive impairment in patients with dementia. Nevertheless, for distinguishing older adults with MCI from healthy controls both the BCSE and MMSE have limitations.

Should the mini-mental state examination be retired?

INTRODUCTION

Short cognitive tests are routinely used in clinical practice to detect and screen for cognitive impairment and dementia. These cognitive tests should meet minimum criteria for both applicability and psychometric qualities.

DEVELOPMENT

The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) is the most frequently applied short cognitive test, and the article introducing it remains a milestone in the history of medicine. Its main advantages are its widespread use and the extensive empirical evidence that supports it. However, the MMSE has important shortcomings, including lack of standardisation, its lack of suitability for illiterate subjects, the considerable effect of socio-educational variables on results, and its limited effectiveness for detecting cognitive impairment. Lastly, since the test is copyright-protected, using it is necessarily either costly or fraudulent. Newer available instruments do not share these shortcomings and have demonstrated greater diagnostic accuracy for detecting cognitive impairment and dementia, as well as being more cost-effective than the MMSE CONCLUSION: It is time to acknowledge the MMSE's important role in the history of medicine and grant it a deserved and honourable retirement. Its place will be taken by more effective instruments that require less time, are user-friendly and free of charge, can be applied to all individuals, and yield more equitable outcomes.

The diagnostic evaluation of a patient with dementia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review outlines a practical approach to the history, mental state, neurologic examination, and laboratory tests in the diagnosis of dementia.

RECENT FINDINGS

Proposed new diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer disease recognize that nonamnestic presentations with symptoms that predominantly affect language, visuospatial abilities, or executive function may occur, particularly with onset before the age of 65. New criteria assign greater likelihood to diagnosis if progressive cognitive decline is documented through serial assessment, or if biomarkers are supportive. In patients aged 80 or older, more than one cause of dementia is often present, for example, Alzheimer disease plus vascular dementia. Clinical diagnostic criteria for non-Alzheimer dementias are evolving, particularly in areas such as frontotemporal dementia. Imaging and CSF biomarkers have been proposed in recent diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer disease. Although biomarkers can provide a higher level of certainty that Alzheimer pathology may or may not be present, biomarkers for non-Alzheimer dementias are lacking.

SUMMARY

The availability of biomarkers does not replace or diminish the need for a thorough clinical evaluation. A structured clinical approach helps to define the diagnosis and collects information essential for establishing a comprehensive care plan for patients with dementia and their families.

Evaluating research for clinical significance: using critically appraised topics to enhance evidence-based neuropsychology

Meehl's (1973, Psychodiagnosis: Selected papers. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press) distinction between statistical and clinical significance holds special relevance for evidence-based neuropsychological practice. Meehl argued that despite attaining statistical significance, many published findings have limited practical value since they do not inform clinical care. In the context of an ever expanding clinical research literature, accessible methods to evaluate clinical impact are needed. The method of Critically Appraised Topics (Straus, Richardson, Glasziou, & Haynes, 2011, Evidence-based medicine: How to practice and teach EBM (4th ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill-Livingstone) was developed to provide clinicians with a "toolkit" to facilitate implementation of evidence-based practice. We illustrate the Critically Appraised Topics method using a dementia screening example. We argue that the skills practiced through critical appraisal provide clinicians with methods to: (1) evaluate the clinical relevance of new or unfamiliar research findings with a focus on patient benefit, (2) help focus of research quality, and (3) incorporate evaluation of clinical impact into educational and professional development activities.

Assessment scales in dementia

Dementia involves progressive and often remorseless decline in cognition, function, behaviour and care needs. Assessment in dementia relies on collateral as well as patient-derived information. Many assessment scales have been developed over decades for use in dementia research and care. These scales are used to reduce uncertainty in decision making, for example in screening for cognitive impairment, making diagnoses of dementia and monitoring change. Ideal scales used in dementia should demonstrate face validity and concurrent validity against gold standard assessments, should be reliable, practical, and should rely on objective rather than subjective information. Assessment scales in the domains of cognition, function, behaviour, quality of life, depression in dementia, carer burden and overall dementia severity are reviewed in this article. The practical use of these scales in clinical practice and in research is discussed.

Alternate-form reliability of the Montreal cognitive assessment screening test in a clinical setting

AIMS

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) has gained recognition for its validity in detecting cognitive impairment in several clinical populations. For serial assessments, alternate forms are needed to overcome possible practice effects. Our objective was to investigate the reliability of two German MoCA alternate forms for longitudinal assessment applications.

METHODS

The original and one of two alternate forms of the MoCA were administered within a 60-min interval of a clinical interview in a counterbalanced order to 100 healthy elderly controls, 30 patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and 30 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The diagnosis of the majority of patients was supported by in vivo AD pathology biomarkers.

RESULTS

There was a strong correlation between the alternate forms and the original MoCA in all groups, but particularly in the clinical samples. Total mean scores did not differ significantly between the MoCA versions, even taking into account the presentation order. As in previous studies, age and education influenced performance in the MoCA. The same pattern of group differences (controls > MCI > AD) was observed for each of the versions.

CONCLUSION

All three forms can be reliably and interchangeably used in serial cognitive assessment, confirming the MoCA's applicability in research and clinical longitudinal approaches.

Mattis Dementia Rating Scale cutoffs are inadequate for detecting dementia in Parkinson's disease

The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (DRS) is widely used to assess cognition and screen for dementia in Parkinson's disease (PD). In 2008, Llebaria and colleagues reported excellent sensitivity and specificity detecting dementia in PD using a DRS total score cutoff of 123. However, this study used a sample with rather low mean educational achievement (8.9 years). The 123 cutoff score was cross-validated in a sample of 51 PD patients with a rather high mean educational achievement (14.84 years). A total score cutoff of 123 correctly classified 60.7% of the sample, with 20% sensitivity and 100% specificity. Use of age- and education-corrected scaled scores improved classification accuracy, but these cutoffs corresponded to the 25th percentile. Optimal classification of 82.4% accuracy was achieved using a raw total score cutoff of 133, corresponding roughly to the 16th percentile. Neither age nor education evinced a strong correlation to DRS total score in our sample. Results suggest caution in applying the DRS-2 total score cutoff of 123 and highlight the importance of comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations for clinical diagnosis of dementia in PD.

Are subjective cognitive complaints relevant in preclinical Alzheimer's disease? A review and guidelines for healthcare professionals

Identifying what makes people vulnerable to developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) is at the forefront of many research programmes, while early diagnosis is the goal in clinical practice. What individuals themselves tell their general practitioners (GPs) is clearly important because these subjective complaints may be a clue that something is wrong. More specifically, subjective cognitive complaints (SCC) may be the first sign of AD in individuals whose cognitive performance on standard neuropsychological tasks is normal for their age. The challenge for researchers in this field is twofold: (a) determining when SCC do or do not predict current cognitive functioning and future dementia; and (b) estimating how relevant they are for patients and their proxies. The current article addresses these issues, while guidelines are also provided in an attempt to help clinicians interpret and make treatment decisions about their patients’ SCC.

Construct Validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA)

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a brief instrument developed for the screening of milder forms of cognitive impairment. The present study aims to assess the construct related validity of the MoCA through the establishment of the factorial, convergent, and discriminant related validities, and the reliability of data. In a Portuguese sample of 830 participants, several models were tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Although all tested models showed a good fit, the six-factor model based on the conceptual model proposed by the MoCA's authors showed a significantly better fit. The results allowed us to establish the factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity of this six-dimensional structure. An overall psychometric adequacy of the items, and a good reliability were also found. This study contributes to overcome an important gap in the construct related validity of this instrument. The present findings corroborate the six-dimensional structure of the MoCA and provide good evidence of the construct related validity. The MoCA has proved to be an appropriate measure for cognitive screening taking into account different cognitive domains, which will enable clinicians and researchers to use this test and its six latent dimensions to achieve a better understanding of the individuals' cognitive profile.

Ask the Experts: What is the utility of amyloid imaging from the point of view of the clinician?

Dr Doraiswamy is Professor of Psychiatry and Geriatrics at Duke University (NC, USA). He also heads the Biological Psychiatry Division in the Department of Psychiatry at Duke, where he directs a leading clinical trials program for memory disorders. In addition to clinical consultations and teaching, he enjoys mentoring students and writing. Dr Doraiswamy is the coauthor of ‘The Alzheimer’s Action Plan’, an acclaimed consumer guide to memory problems.