Deficits in Attention and Visual Processing but not Global Cognition Predict Simulated Driving Errors in Drivers Diagnosed With Mild Alzheimer's Disease

Exploring Factors Influencing Driving Simulator Performance in Patients With Acquired Brain Injury Using Hierarchical Clustering Analysis of Principal Components

Background Driving simulator training is widely recognized as an effective tool for driving rehabilitation. However, the key factors influencing simulator performance and the extent of training-related improvements remain insufficiently explored. This study aimed to identify the demographic, motor, and cognitive factors associated with driving simulator performance and post-training improvements in patients with acquired brain injury (ABI) using clustering analysis. Methods A total of 64 patients with ABI (59% cerebral hemorrhage, 34% cerebral infarction, 7% traumatic brain injury; mean age 64±13 years; 81% male) underwent comprehensive neuropsychological assessments and driving simulator evaluations before and after training. Multiple factor analysis was applied to integrate pre- and post-training variables and reduce dimensionality. Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components was then performed to classify patients based on training effect patterns. The Kruskal-Wallis test and post hoc multiple comparisons were used to assess differences in background factors among the clusters. Results Three distinct clusters were identified: Cluster 1 (n=32) exhibited consistently high performance in reaction and city-driving tasks, Cluster 2 (n=19) demonstrated prolonged reaction times but showed significant improvements in city-driving tasks after training, and Cluster 3 (n=13) demonstrated severe city-driving errors and limited post-training improvement. Neuropsychological assessments revealed significant differences among the clusters (p < 0.05), with Cluster 1 consistently outperforming Clusters 2 and 3 across multiple cognitive domains, including attention, cognitive flexibility, visuospatial abilities, memory, and executive function. Conclusion Neuropsychological assessments may serve as predictors of both baseline driving performance and post-training improvements. Tailoring interventions to individual cognitive profiles, particularly focusing on attention, visuospatial abilities, and executive function, may enhance the efficacy of simulator-based rehabilitation and support the safe resumption of driving. Future longitudinal studies should examine how targeted cognitive training might improve driving performance in patients with different cognitive profiles.

Neuropsychological domains and fitness to drive in mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer's disease

Cognitive deficits associated with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer's disease (AD) can impact driving. This integrative review investigated which cognitive domains were associated with poor driving performance or unfitness to drive in studies with outcomes measured in simulator or on-road driving in patients with MCI or AD. The review was conducted by searching for articles published between 2001 and 2020 in the MEDLINE (via PubMed), EMBASE, and SCOPUS databases. Studies addressing patients with other dementias (e.g., vascular or mixed dementia, Lewy body dementia, Parkinson's disease) were excluded. Of 404 articles initially selected, 17 met the eligibility criteria for this review. Based on the findings of this integrative review, attentional capacity, processing speed, executive functions and visuospatial skills were the functions whose declines were most frequently reported in a context of unsafe driving by older adults with MCI or AD. Reports were remarkably heterogeneous in methodological aspects whereas quite limited in cross-cultural coverage and in sample recruited, what prompts for further trials in the field.

Driving Assessment for Persons with Dementia: How and when?

Dementia is a progressive neurodegenerative disease leading to deterioration in cognitive and physical skills. Driving is an important instrumental activity of daily living, essential for independence. However, this is a complex skill. A moving vehicle can be a dangerous tool in the hand of someone who cannot maneuver it properly. As a result, the assessment of driving capacity should be part of the management of dementia. Moreover, dementia comprises of different etiologies and stages consisting of different presentations. As a result, this study aims to identify driving behaviors common in dementia and compare different assessment methods. A literature search was conducted using the PRISMA checklist as a framework. A total of forty-four observational studies and four meta-analyses were identified. Study characteristics varied greatly with regards to methodology, population, assessments, and outcome measures used. Drivers with dementia performed generally worse than cognitively normal drivers. Poor speed maintenance, lane maintenance, difficulty managing intersections and poor response to traffic stimuli were the most common behaviors in drivers with dementia. Naturalistic driving, standardized road assessments, neuropsychological tests, participant self-rating and caregiver rating were the most common driving assessment methods used. Naturalistic driving and on-road assessments had the highest predictive accuracy. Results on other forms of assessments varied greatly. Both driving behaviors and assessments were influenced by different stages and etiologies of dementia at varying degrees. Methodology and results in available research are varied and inconsistent. As a result, better quality research is required in this field.

Driving Ability Evaluation and Rehabilitation for People With Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias

Worldwide, it is estimated that around 50 million older adults have Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD). Cognitive deficits associated with ADRD may affect a driver's perception and decision-making and potentially cause safety concerns. Despite much research, there lacks a comprehensive cognitive evaluation to determine the driving capability of a person with ADRD and it is unclear what are the most effective training and interventions that help to enhance driving performance for these individuals. The purpose of this article is to conduct a comprehensive literature survey to review and summarize studies of driving performance evaluation and intervention for people with ADRD and discuss perspectives for future studies. Although many studies have investigated the correlations between driving behaviors and cognitive performances for people with ADRD, it remains unclear how driving behaviors and cognitive performances are associated with psychophysiological measures. We discussed the need to develop regular driving evaluation and rehabilitation protocol for people with ADRD. We also highlighted the potential benefit to combine driving tests with psychophysiological measures to assist in characterizing personalized cognitive evaluation in the behavioral evaluation process.

Aktuelle Evidenzlage zur Beurteilung der Fahrtauglichkeit von Menschen mit kognitiven Einschränkungen: Ein systematisches Review

Einleitung Aufgrund der hohen Prävalenz demenzieller Erkrankungen handelt es sich bei der Überprüfung der Fahrtauglichkeit von Menschen mit kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen um ein Thema von großer gesellschaftlicher Relevanz.

Methodik Es wurde eine umfassende systematische Literaturrecherche zu der Forschungsfrage: „Welche evidenz-basierten Methoden eignen sich zur Beurteilung der Fahrtauglichkeit von Menschen mit Demenz (MmD) oder milden kognitiven Einschränkungen (MCI)?“ für den Zeitraum 2015–2020 durchgeführt. Die Recherche erfolgte in den Datenbanken Medline, PsycINFO, LIVIVO, PubPsych, Scopus, Cinahl und CENTRAL.

Ergebnisse 30 Studien wurden in die qualitative Analyse eingeschlossen. Die Fahrtauglichkeit kann mit praxisbasierten Testverfahren wie Praxisfahrtest (On-road), Fahrsimulator und Fahrverhaltensbeurteilung im natürlichen Umfeld (Naturalistic Driving) beurteilt werden. Theoriebasierte Methoden sind: neuropsychologische Tests, fahrspezifische Testungen und Fragebögen zur Selbsteinschätzung. Die Studienlage zeigt, dass einzelne neuropsychologische Tests nicht zur Bestimmung der Fahrtauglichkeit ausreichen. Eine höhere Aussagekraft haben praxisbasierte Testverfahren, fahrspezifische Testungen sowie Kombinationen aus evidenz-basierten Methoden.

Schlussfolgerungen Die Überprüfung der Fahrtauglichkeit von Menschen mit kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen sollte angesichts des progredienten Verlaufs demenzieller Erkrankungen engmaschig durch eine Kombination aus theorie- und praxisbasierter Methoden erfolgen.

Driving Performance and Its Correlation with Neuropsychological Tests in Senior Drivers with Cognitive Impairment in Japan

BACKGROUND

With the rapid aging of the population, the issue of driving by dementia patients has been causing increasing concern worldwide.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the driving difficulties faced by senior drivers with cognitive impairment and identify the specific neuropsychological tests that can reflect specific domains of driving maneuvers.

METHODS

Senior drivers with cognitive impairment were investigated. Neuropsychological tests and a questionnaire on demographic and driving characteristics were administered. Driving simulator tests were used to quantify participants' driving errors in various domains of driving.

RESULTS

Of the 47 participants, 23 current drivers, though they had better cognitive functions than 24 retired drivers, were found to have impaired driving performance in the domains of Reaction, Starting and stopping, Signaling, and Overall (wayfinding and accidents). The parameters of Reaction were significantly related to the diagnosis, and the scores of MMSE, TMT-A, and TMT-B. As regards details of the driving errors, "Sudden braking" was associated with the scores of MMSE (ρ= -0.707, p < 0.01), BDT (ρ= -0.560, p < 0.05), and ADAS (ρ= 0.758, p < 0.01), "Forgetting to use turn signals" with the TMT-B score (ρ= 0.608, p < 0.05), "Centerline crossings" with the scores of MMSE (ρ= -0.582, p < 0.05) and ADAS (ρ= 0.538, p < 0.05), and "Going the wrong way" was correlated with the score of CDT (ρ= -0.624, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Different neuropsychological factors serve as predictors of different specific driving maneuvers segmented from driving performance.

Attitudes Toward Four Levels of Self-Driving Technology Among Elderly Drivers

Automatization and autonomous vehicles can drastically improve elderly drivers' safety and mobility, with lower costs to the driver and the environment. While autonomous vehicle technology is developing rapidly, much less attention and resources have been devoted to understanding the acceptance, attitudes, and preferences of vehicle automatization among driver groups, such as the elderly. In this study, 236 elderly drivers (≥65 years) evaluated four vehicles representing SAE levels 2–5 in terms of safety, trustworthiness, enjoyment, reliability, comfort, ease of use, and attractiveness, as well as reporting preferences for vehicles employing each of the four levels of automation. The results of a repeated-measures ANOVA showed that the elderly drivers rated the SAE level 2 vehicle highest and the fully automated vehicle (SAE 5) lowest across all attributes. The preference for the vehicle declined as a function of increasing automatization. The seven attributes formed an internally coherent “attitude to automatization” scale, a strong correlate of vehicle preference. Age or annual mileage were not related to attitudes or preferences for automated vehicles. The current study shows that elderly drivers' attitudes toward automatization should be studied further, and these results should be taken into account when developing automated vehicles. The full potential of automatization may not be realized if elderly drivers are ignored.

Using Video Replay of Simulated Driving to Estimate Driving Safety and Cognitive Status

Cognitive decline resulting from Dementia of Alzheimer’s Type (DAT) can lead to reduced ability to perform complex daily tasks required for independent living, including driving an automobile. This study explores the ability of untrained observers to classify driving safety using short video clips of simulated driving through intersections; it also examined whether untrained observers could predict whether the driver was cognitively healthy or cognitively impaired. Participants (n = 54) were shown a series of 30 video clips arranged in an online survey and asked to answer questions following each clip regarding the safety of the maneuver and the cognitive status of the driver. Results showed that participants’ subjectively rated DAT drivers as significantly less safe in comparison to control drivers, F (1, 52) = 228.44, p < 0.001. Participant’s classification of DAT drivers and controls was also significantly higher than chance (i.e., >50% correct). Findings provide preliminary support for the development of a clinical decision-making aid using video replay of driving simulator performance in fitness-to-drive assessments for individuals with cognitive impairment.

Semi-Autonomous Vehicles as a Cognitive Assistive Device for Older Adults

Losing the capacity to drive due to age-related cognitive decline can have a detrimental impact on the daily life functioning of older adults living alone and in remote areas. Semi-autonomous vehicles (SAVs) could have the potential to preserve driving independence of this population with high health needs. This paper explores if SAVs could be used as a cognitive assistive device for older aging drivers with cognitive challenges. We illustrate the impact of age-related changes of cognitive functions on driving capacity. Furthermore, following an overview on the current state of SAVs, we propose a model for connecting cognitive health needs of older drivers to SAVs. The model demonstrates the connections between cognitive changes experienced by aging drivers, their impact on actual driving, car sensors’ features, and vehicle automation. Finally, we present challenges that should be considered when using the constantly changing smart vehicle technology, adapting it to aging drivers and vice versa. This paper sheds light on age-related cognitive characteristics that should be considered when developing future SAVs manufacturing policies which may potentially help decrease the impact of cognitive change on older adult drivers.

Driving Cessation in Patients Attending a Young-Onset Dementia Clinic: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Background

Although driving by persons with dementia is an important public health concern, little is known about driving cessation in younger people with dementia. We aimed to determine the prevalence and factors affecting driving cessation in individuals with and without dementia aged under 65 years attending a memory clinic in a European setting.

Methods

Subjects were consecutive patients assessed at a specialist memory service at a university teaching hospital between 2000 and 2010. The data collected included demographic, clinical, standardized cognitive assessments as well as information on driving. Dementia diagnosis was made using ICD-10 criteria.

Results

Of the 225 people who were or had been drivers, 32/79 (41%) with young-onset dementia (YOD) stopped driving compared to 25/146 (17%) patients who had cognitive impairment due to other causes. Women were more likely to cease driving and voluntarily than men (p < 0.001). Diagnosis of YOD was associated with driving cessation (1.193, 95% CI 0.570–1.815, p ≤ 0.001), and was mediated by impairment in praxis with the highest indirect mediation effect (0.754, 95% CI 0.183–1.401, p = 0.009).

Conclusions

YOD diagnosis, female gender, and impairment in praxis have a higher probability for driving cessation in those under 65 years of age with cognitive impairment.

Driving with a neurodegenerative disorder: an overview of the current literature

Driving is important for employment, social activities, and for the feeling of independence. The decision to cease driving affects the quality of life and has been associated with reduced mobility, social isolation, and sadness. Patients with neurodegenerative disorders can experience difficulties while driving due to their cognitive, motor, and behavioral impairments. The aim of this review is to summarize the available literature on changes in driving competence and behavior in patients with neurodegenerative disorders, with a particular focus on Huntington's (HD), Parkinson's (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). A systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed/Medline database. Studies using on-road or simulated driving assessments were examined in this review. In addition, studies investigating the association between cognitive functioning and driving were included. The review identified 70 studies. Only a few publications were available on HD (n = 7) compared to PD (n = 32) and AD (n = 31). This review revealed that driving is impaired in patients with neurodegenerative disorders on all levels of driving competence. The errors most commonly committed were on the tactical level including lane maintenance and lane changing. Deficits in executive functioning, attention, and visuospatial abilities can partially predict driving competence, and the performance on neuropsychological tests might be useful when discussing potential driving cessation. Currently, there is no gold standard to assess driving ability using clinical measures such as neuropsychological assessments, so more studies are necessary to detect valid screening tools and develop useful and reliable evidence-based guidelines.

Deconstructing the performance of everyday activities: a case in dementia

BACKGROUND

The assessment of everyday functioning in dementia is currently very global and in most cases fails to provide an in-depth overview of specific areas of deficits. Every activity comprises different sub-tasks which may be impaired to different degrees. Performance of some sub-tasks might be maintained and could thus be the foundation for remaining independent for longer. Thus, the objective of this study was to explore the benefits of breaking down everyday activities into sub-tasks.

METHODS

A total of 183 family carers of people with mild dementia completed the revised Interview for Deteriorations in Daily Living Activities in Dementia 2 (R-IDDD2) rating their relative's everyday functioning. Each of the 20 activities comprised three sub-tasks. Data were analyzed using ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections, and sub-tasks were clustered in relation to different forms of cognition.

RESULTS

The majority of activities showed at least one major area of impairment. Sub-tasks could be clustered based on different types of cognition. Several sub-tasks had a focus on memory (forgetting it is time to do the cleaning; forgetting previously known telephone numbers), whereby short-term, long-term, and prospective memory could be distinguished further. Other sub-tasks were clustered into attention (getting more distracted when driving) and executive function (sorting out bills).

CONCLUSIONS

The R-IDDD2 and its analysis of sub-task performance offers a novel platform to examine impairments comprehensively. This can help both in aiding timelier diagnosis by recognizing subtle deficits, but also in care management planning, whereby family and paid carers should only care for those sub-tasks that are most impaired and thus encourage remaining independent for longer.

Comparing Cognitive Profiles of Licensed Drivers with Mild Alzheimer's Disease and Mild Dementia with Lewy Bodies

Purpose. Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) constitute two of the most common forms of dementia in North America. Driving is a primary means of mobility among older adults and the risk of dementia increases with advanced age. The purpose of this paper is to describe the cognitive profile of licensed drivers with mild AD and mild DLB. Method. Licensed drivers with mild AD, mild DLB, and healthy controls completed neuropsychological tests measuring general cognition, attention, visuospatial/perception, language, and cognitive fluctuations. Results. The results showed differences between healthy controls and demented participants on almost all neuropsychological measures. Participants with early DLB were found to perform significantly worse on some measures of attention and visuospatial functioning in comparison with early AD. Discussion. Future research should examine the relationship between neuropsychological measures and driving outcomes among individuals with mild AD and mild DLB.

Assessment of Drivers with Alzheimer's Disease in High Demand Driving Situations: Coping with Intersections in a Driving Simulator

Intersections are one of the most complex and cognitively demanding driving situations. Individuals with dementia and, more precisely, Alzheimer's disease (AD), may face additional challenges negotiating intersections given the nature of their cognitive decline, which often includes deficits of attention. We developed a comprehensive evaluation scheme to assess simulated driving performance at intersections. The evaluation scheme captured all types of errors that could occur during preparation (i.e., prior to the intersection), execution (i.e., during the intersection), and recovery (i.e., after the intersection). Using the evaluation scheme, intersection behaviour in a driving simulator among 17 drivers with mild AD was compared to that of 21 healthy controls. The results indicated that across all types of intersections, mild AD drivers exhibited a greater number of errors relative to controls. Drivers with mild AD made the most errors during the preparation period leading up to the intersection. These findings present a novel approach to analyzing intersection behaviour and contribute to the growing body of research on dementia and driving.

Driving Competence in Mild Dementia with Lewy Bodies: In Search of Cognitive Predictors Using Driving Simulation

Driving is a multifactorial behaviour drawing on multiple cognitive, sensory, and physical systems. Dementia is a progressive and degenerative neurological condition that impacts the cognitive processes necessary for safe driving. While a number of studies have examined driving among individuals with Alzheimer's disease, less is known about the impact of Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) on driving safety. The present study compared simulated driving performance of 15 older drivers with mild DLB with that of 21 neurologically healthy control drivers. DLB drivers showed poorer performance on all indicators of simulated driving including an increased number of collisions in the simulator and poorer composite indicators of overall driving performance. A measure of global cognitive function (i.e., the Mini Mental State Exam) was found to be related to the overall driving performance. In addition, measures of attention (i.e., Useful Field of View, UFOV) and space processing (Visual Object and Space Perception, VOSP, Test) correlated significantly with a rater's assessment of driving performance.