What more comprehensive physiotherapy techniques than pelvic floor muscles training should be investigated in the context of post-prostatectomy? A narrative review

BACKGROUND

In a previous article, we have underlined the emerging level of evidence for the effectiveness of a more comprehensive functional physical therapy than solely pelvic floor muscles training (PFMT) for men after radical prostatectomy (RP). More and more authors suggest that physiotherapy programs should not focus only on the side effect of continence, but more generally on the interaction of continence disorders with all other side effects related to patient's physical and emotional functioning.

RESEARCH QUESTION

The aims of this narrative review are to highlight rehabilitation approaches unrelated to analytical PFMT that would seem relevant to consider in the future for post-RP men.

METHOD

Our narrative review sought to map the body of literature relevant to the primary objective (non-PFMT), supplementing the data from our previous review with additional recent articles that were not eligible due to not meeting the inclusion criteria for a systematic review.

RESULTS

After full text screening, 13 interventional studies have been selected. Intervention strategies were based on five major type of exercises: flexibility, synergism & co-activation, coordination & movement control, strength & endurance, aerobic & games therapy. Most of the studies of this narrative review focused on synergies, co-activations and movement control techniques that emphasized the deep abdominal muscles and PFMs reflexive activation. The wide variety of countries represented in the 13 studies with consistent results point to the potential effectiveness and replicability across various socio-cultural, ethnical, or religious contexts.

CONCLUSION

We found 13 studies from 9 different countries that provide a more complete rehabilitation approach than PFMT alone in men post-RP. Intervention strategies were built around five main types of exercises, with the majority of them emphasizing synergies, co-activations, and movement control techniques. In light of these data, we hope that future research will enable us to offer the most relevant and patient-centered physiotherapy treatment.

Comparative effects of different types of exercise on health-related quality of life during and after active cancer treatment: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The positive influence of most types of exercise has been reported repeatedly, but what the most effective exercise approaches are for improving health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in people with cancer remains unknown. The aim of this systematic review and network meta-analysis was to synthesize the evidence from intervention studies to assess the effects of different types of exercise on HRQoL during and after cancer treatment.

METHODS

MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched for randomized controlled trials aimed at testing the effects of exercise interventions meant to improve HRQoL in people with cancer. Separate analyses were conducted for HRQoL as measured by general and cancer-specific questionnaires. We also evaluated whether the effects of exercise were different during and after cancer treatment in both the physical and mental HRQoL domains.

RESULTS

In total, 93 studies involving 7435 people with cancer were included. Network effect size estimates comparing exercise intervention vs. usual care were significant for combined exercise (0.35, 95% confidence interval (95%CI): 0.14-0.56) for HRQoL as measured by general questionnaires, and for combined (0.31, 95%CI: 0.13-0.48), mind-body exercise (0.54, 95%CI: 0.18-0.89), and walking (0.39, 95%CI: 0.04-0.74) for HRQoL as measured by cancer-specific questionnaires.

CONCLUSION

Exercise programs combining aerobic and resistance training can be recommended to improve HRQoL during and after cancer treatment. The scarcity and heterogeneity of these studies prevents us from making recommendations about other exercise modalities due to insufficient evidence.

Prostate cancer patients' experiences and preferences for web-based physical activity applications: A qualitative meta-synthesis

BACKGROUND

The incidence of prostate cancer increases with age. Physical activity can improve the prognosis and quality of life of patients. However, studies have observed lower levels of physical activity in men with prostate cancer, and most do not meet physical activity guidelines. Web-based physical activity is a promising form of exercise that will play an important role in prostate cancer patients.

AIMS

To synthesise the experiences and preferences of prostate cancer patients for web-based PA applications, thereby providing a basis for the construction of intervention programs tailored to the needs of patients.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, CINAHL and three Chinese databases. This review includes qualitative empirical reports from the date of establishment of the respective databases until April 2023. Data extraction was performed by two independent reviewers and study quality was assessed.

RESULTS

A total of nine studies were included. The experiences and preferences of prostate cancer patients with web-based physical activity apps were synthesised into the following three analysis themes: (1) Pursuing individualised management strategies; (2) Perceiving and seeking social support and (3) Moving forwards in the struggle.

CONCLUSION

Our study found that men with prostate cancer experienced greater challenges in engaging in physical activity. Because of individual differences between patients, health care providers need to provide care that is tailored to each patient. Future studies should further explore the specific effects of web-based PA applications in promoting the physical function of prostate cancer patients to increase their flexibility.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

This article synthesises prostate cancer patients' experiences with web-based physical activity applications, highlighting their specific information needs. The results suggest several implications for the application of individualised management strategies, the perception and search for social support, and health- literacy. The results of this study will inform future research and program design that recognises the importance of patient-centred efforts to better self-manage physical function.

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

In the early stages of the study, objectives and subsequent findings were presented and discussed in a meeting with a reference group that represented patients, health professionals and the public.

Physiotherapy as an Effective Method to Support the Treatment of Male Urinary Incontinence: A Systematic Review

Urinary incontinence (UI) is a serious health issue that affects both women and men. The risk of UI increases in men with age and after treatment for prostate cancer and affects up to 32% of men. Furthermore, UI may affect up to 69% of men after prostatectomy. Considering such a high incidence, it is critical to search for effective methods to mitigate this issue. Hence, the present review aims to provide an overview of physiotherapeutic methods and evaluate their effectiveness in treating UI in men. This systematic review was performed using articles included in PubMed, Embase, WoS, and PEDro databases. A total of 6965 relevant articles were found. However, after a risk of bias assessment, 39 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. The research showed that the available physiotherapeutic methods for treating men with UI, including those after prostatectomy, involve pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) alone or in combination with biofeedback (BF) and/or electrostimulation (ES), vibrations, and traditional activity. In conclusion, PFMT is the gold standard of UI therapy, but it may be complemented by other techniques to provide a personalized treatment plan for patients. The effectiveness of the physiotherapeutic methods varies from study to study, and large methodological differences make it difficult to accurately compare individual results and draw unequivocal conclusions.

Preference-based versus randomized controlled trial in prostate cancer survivors: Comparison of recruitment, adherence, attrition, and clinical outcomes

Introduction

Patients' unwillingness to be randomized to a mode of exercise may partly explain their poor recruitment, adherence, and attrition in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of exercise in oncology. It is unknown whether a preference-based trial can improve recruitment, adherence, retention, and clinical outcomes compared to a RCT of the same exercise interventions.

Objective

We assessed the effects of a 2-arm exercise preference trial on adherence and clinical outcomes compared to a similar 2-arm RCT in men with prostate cancer (PC).

Methods

This was a two-arm preference-based trial of group-based training (GROUP) or home-based training (HOME). PC survivors on androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) who declined randomization to the RCT but chose to participate in a preference trial were recruited in four Canadian centers. All study participants engaged in aerobic and resistance training, 4-5 days weekly for 6 months, aiming for 150 minutes/week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. The primary outcomes were changes from baseline to 6 months in fatigue and functional endurance. Secondary outcomes were quality of life, physical fitness, body composition, blood markers, and adherence. Linear mixed models were used to assess the effects of HOME versus GROUP on primary outcomes. In pooled preference and RCT data, the selection effect (i.e., difference between those who were and were not willing to be randomized) and treatment effect (i.e., difference between GROUP and HOME) were estimated using linear regression.

Results and conclusion

Fifty-four participants (mean [SD] age, 70.2 [8.6] years) were enrolled (GROUP n=17; HOME n=37). Comparable effects on primary and secondary outcomes were observed following GROUP or HOME in the preference-based trial. Adherence was similar between preference and RCT participants. However, attrition was higher in the RCT (50.0% vs. 27.8%, p= 0.04). Compared to GROUP, HOME was more effective in ameliorating fatigue (mean difference: +5.2, 95%CI=1.3 to 9.3 p=0.01) in pooled preference and RCT data. A preference-based trial results in comparable observed effects on clinical outcomes and adherence and lower attrition compared with a RCT of the same exercise interventions in PC survivors on ADT. Given the appeals of preference-based trials to study participants, additional studies are warranted.

Clinical trial registration

clinicaltrials.gov, identifier (NCT03335631).

Effect of exercise on tumor markers - Is exercise anti-tumorigenic in humans?: A scoping review of preliminary clinical investigations

It has been increasingly conceptualized that exercise may be able to suppress cancer progression itself based on the preclinical evidence suggesting various mechanisms. The challenges exist in investigating the effects of exercise on tumor progression in human settings. Circulating or tissue-driven tumor markers can be a useful and cost-effective tool in monitoring the progression of some cancers. This scoping review summarized the current evidence on the use of tumor markers in clinical exercise oncology trials. A total of 14 studies were identified, and tumor markers included prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer, carcinoembryonic antigen and circulating tumor cells for colorectal cancer, and Ki-67 for breast cancer. Treatment settings and exercise prescriptions were highly heterogeneous, while most studies did not find significant exercise-mediated effects on tumor markers. Nevertheless, we provide an insight into the utility and considerations in using tumor markers in clinical exercise oncology research.

Impact of Physical Exercise Program Interventions on Erectile Function and Cardiovascular Health in Males with Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) and its associated treatments can cause significant cardiovascular and sexual dysfunctions. While structured exercise interventions can induce positive outcomes in males with PC, there are limited data on its effects on cardiovascular health, erectile function, or the combination of these outcomes. It has been proposed that positive changes in biomarkers of cardiovascular health through physical exercise programs, can result in cardiovascular remodelling and improve penile haemodynamic and erectile function recovery in those with metabolic syndrome and/or cardiovascular diseases, although the data is accruing in males who are diagnosed and/or treated for PC. While the results of this review article support structured physical exercise interventions to effectively prevent and mitigate the development of both sexual and cardiovascular dysfunctions in males with PC, appropriate caution should be maintained and future clinical research should focus on the development of standardised and evidence-based exercise guidelines in the setting of PC survivorship.

Taking Advantage of the Teachable Moment at Initial Diagnosis of Prostate Cancer-Results of a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of Supervised Exercise Training

BACKGROUND

Increased physical activity (PA) levels are associated with improved prostate cancer (PCa) outcomes. Sustainable PA has been linked to improved health-related quality of life (QoL) in cancer patients. The time of diagnosis of PCa may offer a critical time point when patients might be more likely to consider lifestyle changes. This, in turn, may contribute to sustainable PA and its likely benefits.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to determine if a structured PA intervention introduced at the time of diagnosis can (1) lead to sustainable PA and (2) help improve psychosocial and QoL outcomes as compared with usual PA.

INTERVENTIONS/METHODS

This was a pilot randomized controlled trial enrolling patients with intermediate-risk PCa into either arm A (supervised 8- to 12-week physical exercise program; n = 10) or control arm B (usual PA; n = 10). Primary outcome was PA at 6 months. Secondary outcomes were QoL, psychological well-being, physical fitness, and functional outcomes postintervention. Change over time was compared using a nonparametric Wilcoxon test.

RESULTS

Demographic variables were the same between arms. Comparing parameters at the start and 6 months post-radical prostatectomy, PA significantly improved in arm A (self-reported Godin score 24.7 vs 42.8 units, P < .01, objective number of chair stands [14-19, P < .01]), but not in arm B. There were no significant differences between arms in QoL and psychosocial outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

A preoperative supervised exercise training program increases long-term PA.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Future trials should evaluate PA sustainability beyond 6 months and if this leads to improved psychosocial and QoL outcomes.

Physical exercise and quality of life in patients with prostate cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer leads to worse quality of life due to treatment and consequences of disease; benefits of physical exercise remain unclear on the improvement of quality of life in this population. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of physical exercise in improving quality of life in patients with prostate cancer.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out. For the search of studies, we used electronics databases such as Cochrane Library, MEDLINE via PUBMED, Regional Health Portal, and EMBASE, without language restrictions or year of publication. The descriptors used were as follows: "prostatic neoplasms," "exercise," and "quality of life." The risk analysis of bias in the meta-analysis was based on the Cochrane Collaboration Tool. For statistical analysis, the fixed effects model was used. Randomized controlled trials were included, which had a sample of patients with stage I-IV prostate cancer and that the intervention was aerobic physical exercise (AE) or resistance physical exercise (RE) or combined AE and RE.

RESULTS

Five thousand six hundred nineteen studies were identified, but only 12 studies were selected. The quality of life of the patients was measured using instruments (SF 36, EORTC, AQoL-8D, IPSS and FACT-P), which served to divide the studies in groups where they presented the same instrument used. The analysis carried out shows that the quality of life of patients with prostate cancer submitted to aerobic training regimens had a protective effect in relation to the others.

CONCLUSION

Most studies show an improvement in the quality of life of patients when they practice physical exercise, perceived by increasing the score of the instrument in question. However, methodological and heterogeneous differences between the studies increase the analysis bias.

Preoperative exercise in patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty: a pilot randomized controlled trial

Background

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of preoperative physiotherapy (PT) on functional, subjective and socio-economic parameters after total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

Methods

20 patients (mean ± SD: age 67 ± 7 years) scheduled for TKA at Balgrist University Hospital between July 2016 and March 2017 were randomly assigned to a control (CG) or intervention (IG) group. 3 to 4 weeks prior to surgery the IG completed 5 to 9 sessions of PT containing proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) techniques, endurance training and individually indicated interventions. Measurements were executed at baseline, preoperative and 3 months after TKA. The primary outcome measure was the Stair Climbing Test (SCT), secondary outcome measures were the knee range of motion (ROM) and the level of physical activity using Lysholm Score (LS) and Tegner Activity Scale (TAS). The subjective and socio-economic parameters were the Patients’ Global Impression of Change (PGIC) scale, inpatient rehabilitation time, preoperative pain levels and metabolic equivalent (MET), postoperative intake of analgesics and overall costs.

Results

No difference between IG and CG was found for SCT (F (2/36) = 0.016, p = 0.984, η2 = 0.004). An interaction between group and time was shown for TAS (F (18/1) = 13.890) with an increase in the IG (p = 0.002, η2 = 0.536). The sub-item “pain” within the LS presented a higher pain-level in CG (F (18/1) = 4.490, p = 0.048, η2 = 0.974), while IG showed a higher preoperative MET compared to CG (p = 0.035). There were no other significant changes. The CG produced 21.4% higher overall costs, took more analgesics and showed higher preoperative pain levels than the IG.

Conclusions

Findings show that preoperative therapy improved the level of physical activity before and after TKA and resulted in a clinically relevant gain in TAS.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier; NCT03160534. Registered 19 May 2017

The Interplay between Vascular Function and Sexual Health in Prostate Cancer: The Potential Benefits of Exercise Training

Prostate cancer and its associated treatments can cause significant and lasting morbidities, such as cardiovascular and sexual dysfunctions. Various interventions have attempted to prevent or mitigate these dysfunctions. This review summarises the available evidence on the effects of exercise training on markers of cardiovascular disease (as assessed via vascular health outcomes) and sexual health in this prevalent cancer population. Current studies predominantly report blood pressure outcomes as a marker of vascular health, as well as various questionnaires assessing sexual health parameters, in men on active treatment (i.e., hormone or radiation therapies) or post-treatment. Preliminary evidence suggests that exercise interventions may elicit improvements in sexual function, but not blood pressure, in these populations. Future studies in more advanced and varied prostate cancer populations (i.e., those on chemotherapies or immunotherapies, or undergoing active surveillance) are required to ascertain the duration, intensity and frequency of exercise that optimises the effects of exercise training on cardiovascular and sexual dysfunctions (and their relationship) in men during and following treatment for prostate cancer.

Facilitators and barriers to participation in lifestyle modification for men with prostate cancer: A scoping review

PURPOSE

Diet and physical activity changes have been shown to improve quality of life and health outcomes for prostate cancer (PC) survivors; however, few survivors make lifestyle changes. We aimed to identify PC-specific facilitators and barriers to dietary and physical activity changes and participation in survivorship-based lifestyle management programmes.

METHODS

A scoping review investigating facilitators and barriers of PC survivor's participation in lifestyle management programmes was conducted in June 2018. A total of 454 studies were identified, 45 studies were assessed in full, and 16 were included in the scoping review.

RESULTS

Barriers to lifestyle change included perceived lack of evidence for lifestyle guidelines, treatment side effects, perception of change as unnecessary, time pressure and age. Facilitators for lifestyle change included advice from health professionals, support systems (family and peer), diagnosis as a time for change, lifestyle as a coping strategy to manage side effects and improve well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

Health professionals, peers and family have a significant role in lifestyle management for PC survivors to facilitate engagement. Specific and clear messaging of the benefits of lifestyle management is warranted. Treatment-related side effects, time pressure, current health perception and age should be considered when developing lifestyle management programmes for PC survivors.

Physical activity monitors can be successfully implemented to assess perioperative activity in urologic surgery

BACKGROUND

Mobile health and physical activity monitors (PAMs) are emerging technologies allowing patients to track multiple health parameters. These parameters could be useful in monitoring and modifying the perioperative health of urology patients. We performed a pilot study and describe a model for which to implement mHealth applications in a urology population.

METHODS

Patients undergoing robotic assisted retropubic prostatectomy were screened for inclusion and provided with Fitbit® Charge HRTM (Boston, MA, USA) devices. Patients were fitted with the device during the preoperative visit and instructed to wear before and after surgery. Biophysical data was collected and patient acceptance was assessed with a Mobile Physical Activity Monitor Questionnaire (MPAMQ).

RESULTS

Forty-six patients met inclusion criteria. Median duration of PAM usage was one and seven days preoperatively and postoperatively. Postoperatively, there was a reduction in median daily steps compared to preoperatively (2,782 vs. 3,907, P=0.024), but no statistically significant difference in minutes slept or nighttime awakenings. Obese (BMI ≥30) and older men (≥65 years) had a greater reduction in steps after surgery (P<0.001 and P=0.055), whereas there was no difference in non-obese and men age <65. Patients with BMI ≥30 took 35% fewer steps postoperatively than BMI <30 (P=0.017). The majority of patients (82%) reported a medical benefit and 95% were satisfied with using PAM technology in the perioperative period.

CONCLUSIONS

PAM effectively captures perioperative biophysical parameters and is associated with high patient satisfaction. Clinically, obese and elderly men appear to have significantly reduced activity following prostatectomy.

Feasibility and Effects of a Postoperative Recovery Exercise Program Developed Specifically for Gastric Cancer Patients (PREP-GC) Undergoing Minimally Invasive Gastrectomy

PURPOSE

Exercise intervention after surgery has been found to improve physical fitness and quality of life (QOL). The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility and effects of a postoperative recovery exercise program developed specifically for gastric cancer patients (PREP-GC) undergoing minimally invasive gastrectomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-four patients treated surgically for early gastric cancer were enrolled in the PREP-GC. The exercise program comprised sessions of In-hospital Exercise (1 week), Home Exercise (1 week), and Fitness Improvement Exercise (8 weeks). Adherence and compliance to PREP-GC were evaluated. In addition, body composition, physical fitness, and QOL were assessed during the preoperative period, after the postoperative recovery (2 weeks after surgery), and upon completing the PREP-GC (10 weeks after surgery).

RESULTS

Of the 24 enrolled patients, 20 completed the study without any adverse events related to the PREP-GC. Adherence and compliance rates to the Fitness Improvement Exercise were 79.4% and 99.4%, respectively. Upon completing the PREP-GC, patients also exhibited restored cardiopulmonary function and muscular strength, with improved muscular endurance and flexibility (P<0.05). Compared to those in the preoperative period, no differences were found in symptom scale scores measured using the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) Core Quality of Life Questionnaire (QLQ-C30) and Quality of Life Questionnaire-Stomach Cancer-Specific Module (QLQ-STO22); however, higher scores for global health status and emotional functioning were observed after completing the PREP-GC (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In gastric cancer patients undergoing minimally invasive gastrectomy, PREP-GC was found to be feasible and safe, with high adherence and compliance. Although randomized studies evaluating the benefits of exercise intervention during postoperative recovery are needed, surgeons should encourage patients to participate in systematic exercise intervention programs in the early postoperative period (Registered at the ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01751880).

Exercise overcome adverse effects among prostate cancer patients receiving androgen deprivation therapy: An update meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) patients initiating androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) are suffering from adverse effects; exercise has been proposed as a treatment to relieve adverse effects of ADT, available meta-analysis has proved exercise improves quality of life, and therapy caused fatigue; recently, some high-quality trials have been conducted in order to get more assessment; we conduct an updated meta-analysis to evaluate feasibility that exercise relieves adverse effects in PCa patients initiating ADT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic article search was performed from Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PubMed databases up to March 10, 2017. Outcomes included changes in body composition, physical function, bone health and cardiometabolic changes. We conduct subgroup analysis to analyze the duration and type of exercise correlated with the effect and calculated using standard mean difference (SMD) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULT

Fifteen studies involving 1135 patients were included in our meta-analysis, and significant positive effects were found in body strength (leg press (SMD: 0.78 (95%CI: 0.57-0.99, P <.00001, I = 0%)), chest press (SMD: 0.71 (95%CI: 0.50-0.92, P <.00001, I = 0%)), exercise tolerance (VO2 peak SMD: 0.35 (95%CI: 0.04-0.66, P = .03, I = 0%) in 6 months and SMD: 0.59 (95%CI: 0.16-1.03, P = .007, I = 0% over 6 months)), fatigue (SMD: 0.84 (95%CI: -1.43 to 3.10, P = .85, I = 51%) in 6 months and SMD: -9.3 (95%CI: -16.22 to -2.39, P = .0030, I = 49%) over 6 months)), ADT-caused obesity (body mass index SMD: -0.33 (95%CI: -0.55 to -0.12, P = .002, I = 38% in 6 months and SMD: -0.59 95%CI: -1.02 to 0.17, P = .006, I = 25% over 6 months)), and sex function (SMD: 0.66 (95%CI: 0.35-0.97, P <.00001, I = 2%). There were no evidence of benefit for cardiometabolic changes and bone health. No systematic difference was observed between resistance exercise training (RET) and aerobic exercise training (AET) in ADT-caused obesity, fatigue, and exercise tolerance CONCLUSION:: Exercise can significantly improve the upper and lower muscle strength, increase exercise tolerance, help PCa patients receiving ADT control their body fat mass, BMI, and keep the sex function. ADT-related fatigue is correlated with exercise duration time. No differences were observed in LBM, bone mineral density, and any other metabolic blood markers. Available data show that there is no difference between AET and RET.

Effect of a 2-year home-based endurance training intervention on physiological function and PSA doubling time in prostate cancer patients

AIM

Physical activity after prostate cancer diagnosis has been shown to reduce the risk of disease progression. Here, we aimed to evaluate the effect of a 2-year home-based endurance training intervention on body composition, biomarkers levels, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) doubling time as a surrogate end-point for progressing disease.

METHODS

Out-clinic patients with either biochemical recurrence following radical prostatectomy or patients managed on active surveillance were randomized to either 24 months (3 times/week) of home-based endurance training or usual care. Aerobic fitness, body composition, insulin sensitivity, and biomarkers were measured at 0, 6, and 24 months of intervention. PSA doubling time (PSADT) was calculated based on monthly PSA measurements.

RESULTS

Twenty-five patients were enrolled, and 19 patients completed the study. PSADT increased in the training group from 28 to 76 months (p < 0.05) during the first 6 months and was correlated with changes in VO2max (p < 0.01, r (2) = 0.41). The training group lost 3.6 ± 1.0 kg (p < 0.05) exclusively as fat mass, yet the changes in body composition were not associated with the increased PSADT. The training group showed significant improvements in plasma triglycerides, adiponectin, IGF-1, IGFBP-1, and fasting glucose levels, but no changes in insulin sensitivity (measured as Matsuda index), testosterone, cholesterols, fasting insulin, plasma TNF-alpha, IL-6, or leptin levels. The control group showed no changes in any of the evaluated parameters across the 2-year intervention.

CONCLUSION

In this small randomized controlled trial, we found that improvements in fitness levels correlated with increasing PSADT, suggesting a link between training and disease progression.