Assessment of working memory abilities in normal hearing individuals with and without misophonia

This study aimed to evaluate working memory (WM) abilities in normal hearing individuals with and without misophonia using simple and complex WM tasks, and to correlate WM abilities with the severity of misophonia. The data were collected employing a standard group comparison and a non-probability purposive sampling method. The current study comprised 40 participants aged 18-30 years, who were classified into two groups (with and without misophonia) based on the scores obtained in the Misophonia Assessment Questionnaire (MAQ). Simple tasks, including forward and backward digit span, and complex tasks, including operation and reading span, were used to assess WM abilities. WM abilities, measured using simple WM tasks, were comparable between the two groups. Although the operation span scores revealed no statistically significant difference among the complex tasks, there was a statistically significant difference in the reading span scores. The performance of individuals with misophonia remained similar to those without misophonia in simple WM tasks. However, their WM performance becomes poorer as tasks become more demanding.

Investigating Sensitivity to Auditory Cognition in Listening Effort Assessments: A Simultaneous EEG and Pupillometry Study

BACKGROUND

It is still not fully explained what kind of cognitive sources the methods used in the assessment of listening effort are more sensitive to and how these measurement results are related to each other. The aim of the study is to ascertain which neural resources crucial for listening effort are most sensitive to objective measurement methods using differently degraded speech stimuli.

METHODS

A total of 49 individuals between the ages of 19 and 34 with normal hearing participated in the study. In the first stage, simultaneous pupillometry, electroencephalogram (EEG), and single-task paradigm reaction time (RT) measurements were made during the challenging listening and repetition task with noise-vocoded speech. Two speech reception thresholds (SRT) (50% and 80%) for two vocoding conditions (16 and 6 channels) were collected, resulting in 4 conditions. In the second stage, the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and the test of attention in listening (TAIL) were applied. Stepwise linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the predictors of listening effort measurements.

RESULTS

A significant difference was found between 6 and 16 channel stimuli in both pupil dilation change and EEG alpha band power change. In the hardest listening condition, whereas RAVLT scores are significant predictors of pupil dilation change, TAIL scores are significant predictors of EEG alpha power. As the stimulus difficulty decreased, the factors that predicted both EEG and pupillometry results decreased. In the single-task paradigm, a significant regression model could not be obtained at all four difficulty levels.

CONCLUSION

As a result of the study, it was found that the pupil dilation change was more sensitive to auditory memory skills and the EEG alpha power change was more sensitive to auditory attention skills. To our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the sensitivity of different listening effort measurement methods to auditory cognitive skills.

Effects of Background Noise and Linguistic Violations on Frontal Theta Oscillations During Effortful Listening

OBJECTIVES

Background noise and linguistic violations have been shown to increase the listening effort. The present study aims to examine the effects of the interaction between background noise and linguistic violations on subjective listening effort and frontal theta oscillations during effortful listening.

DESIGN

Thirty-two normal-hearing listeners participated in this study. The linguistic violation was operationalized as sentences versus random words (strings). Behavioral and electroencephalography data were collected while participants listened to sentences and strings in background noise at different signal to noise ratios (SNRs) (-9, -6, -3, 0 dB), maintained them in memory for about 3 sec in the presence of background noise, and then chose the correct sequence of words from a base matrix of words.

RESULTS

Results showed the interaction effects of SNR and speech type on effort ratings. Although strings were inherently more effortful than sentences, decreasing SNR from 0 to -9 dB (in 3 dB steps), increased effort rating more for sentences than strings in each step, suggesting the more pronounced effect of noise on sentence processing that strings in low SNRs. Results also showed a significant interaction between SNR and speech type on frontal theta event-related synchronization during the retention interval. This interaction indicated that strings exhibited higher frontal theta event-related synchronization than sentences at SNR of 0 dB, suggesting increased verbal working memory demand for strings under challenging listening conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

The study demonstrated that the interplay between linguistic violation and background noise shapes perceived effort and cognitive load during speech comprehension under challenging listening conditions. The differential impact of noise on processing sentences versus strings highlights the influential role of context and cognitive resource allocation in the processing of speech.

Speech Recognition and Listening Effort in Cochlear Implant Recipients and Normal-Hearing Listeners

The outcome of cochlear implantation is typically assessed by speech recognition tests in quiet and in noise. Many cochlear implant recipients reveal satisfactory speech recognition especially in quiet situations. However, since cochlear implants provide only limited spectro-temporal cues the effort associated with understanding speech might be increased. In this respect, measures of listening effort could give important extra information regarding the outcome of cochlear implantation. In order to shed light on this topic and to gain knowledge for clinical applications we compared speech recognition and listening effort in cochlear implants (CI) recipients and age-matched normal-hearing listeners while considering potential influential factors, such as cognitive abilities. Importantly, we estimated speech recognition functions for both listener groups and compared listening effort at similar performance level. Therefore, a subjective listening effort test (adaptive scaling, “ACALES”) as well as an objective test (dual-task paradigm) were applied and compared. Regarding speech recognition CI users needed about 4 dB better signal-to-noise ratio to reach the same performance level of 50% as NH listeners and even 5 dB better SNR to reach 80% speech recognition revealing shallower psychometric functions in the CI listeners. However, when targeting a fixed speech intelligibility of 50 and 80%, respectively, CI users and normal hearing listeners did not differ significantly in terms of listening effort. This applied for both the subjective and the objective estimation. Outcome for subjective and objective listening effort was not correlated with each other nor with age or cognitive abilities of the listeners. This study did not give evidence that CI users and NH listeners differ in terms of listening effort – at least when the same performance level is considered. In contrast, both listener groups showed large inter-individual differences in effort determined with the subjective scaling and the objective dual-task. Potential clinical implications of how to assess listening effort as an outcome measure for hearing rehabilitation are discussed.

The Influence of Noise in the Neurofeedback Training Sessions in Student Athletes

Considering that athletes constantly practice and compete in noisy environments, the aim was to investigate if performing neurofeedback training in these conditions would yield better results in performance than in silent ones. A total of forty-five student athletes aged from 18 to 35 years old and divided equally into three groups participated in the experiment (mean ± SD for age: 22.02 ± 3.05 years). The total neurofeedback session time for each subject was 300 min and were performed twice a week. The environment in which the neurofeedback sessions were conducted did not seem to have a significant impact on the training’s success in terms of alpha relative amplitude changes (0.04 ± 0.08 for silent room versus 0.07 ± 0.28 for noisy room, p = 0.740). However, the group exposed to intermittent noise appears to have favourable results in all performance assessments (p = 0.005 for working memory and p = 0.003 for reaction time). The results of the study suggested that performing neurofeedback training in an environment with intermittent noise can be interesting to athletes. Nevertheless, it is imperative to perform a replicated crossover design.

The Contribution of Age, Working Memory Capacity, and Inhibitory Control on Speech Recognition in Noise in Young and Older Adult Listeners

Purpose The study aimed to investigate the relationship between speech recognition in noise, age, hearing ability, self-rated listening effort, inhibitory control (measured with the Swedish Hayling task), and working memory capacity (WMC; measured with the Reading Span test). Two different speech materials were used: the Hagerman test with low semantic context and Hearing in Noise Test sentences with high semantic context, masked with either energetic or informational maskers. Method A mixed design was used. Twenty-four young normally hearing (M _age = 25.6 years) and 24 older, for their age, normally hearing individuals (M _age = 60.6 years) participated in the study. Speech recognition in noise in both speech materials and self-rated effort in all four background maskers were correlated with inhibitory control and WMC. A linear mixed-effects model was set up to assess differences between the two different speech materials, the four different maskers used in the study, and if age and hearing ability affected performance in the speech materials or the various background noises. Results Results showed that high WMC was related to lower scores of self-rated listening effort for informational maskers, as well as better performance in speech recognition in noise when informational maskers were used. The linear mixed-effects model revealed differences in performance between the low-context and the high-context speech materials, and the various maskers used. Lastly, inhibitory control had some impact on performance in the low-context speech material when masked with an informational masker. Conclusion Different background noises, especially informational maskers, affect speech recognition and self-rated listening effort differently depending on age, hearing ability, and individual variation in WMC and inhibitory control.

Tracking Cognitive Spare Capacity During Speech Perception With EEG/ERP: Effects of Cognitive Load and Sentence Predictability

OBJECTIVES

Listening to speech in adverse listening conditions is effortful. Objective assessment of cognitive spare capacity during listening can serve as an index of the effort needed to understand speech. Cognitive spare capacity is influenced both by signal-driven demands posed by listening conditions and top-down demands intrinsic to spoken language processing, such as memory use and semantic processing. Previous research indicates that electrophysiological responses, particularly alpha oscillatory power, may index listening effort. However, it is not known how these indices respond to memory and semantic processing demands during spoken language processing in adverse listening conditions. The aim of the present study was twofold: first, to assess the impact of memory demands on electrophysiological responses during recognition of degraded, spoken sentences, and second, to examine whether predictable sentence contexts increase or decrease cognitive spare capacity during listening.

DESIGN

Cognitive demand was varied in a memory load task in which young adult participants (n = 20) viewed either low-load (one digit) or high-load (seven digits) sequences of digits, then listened to noise-vocoded spoken sentences that were either predictable or unpredictable, and then reported the final word of the sentence and the digits. Alpha oscillations in the frequency domain and event-related potentials in the time domain of the electrophysiological data were analyzed, as was behavioral accuracy for both words and digits.

RESULTS

Measured during sentence processing, event-related desynchronization of alpha power was greater (more negative) under high load than low load and was also greater for unpredictable than predictable sentences. A complementary pattern was observed for the P300/late positive complex (LPC) to sentence-final words, such that P300/LPC amplitude was reduced under high load compared with low load and for unpredictable compared with predictable sentences. Both words and digits were identified more quickly and accurately on trials in which spoken sentences were predictable.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate that during a sentence-recognition task, both cognitive load and sentence predictability modulate electrophysiological indices of cognitive spare capacity, namely alpha oscillatory power and P300/LPC amplitude. Both electrophysiological and behavioral results indicate that a predictive sentence context reduces cognitive demands during listening. Findings contribute to a growing literature on objective measures of cognitive demand during listening and indicate predictable sentence context as a top-down factor that can support ease of listening.

Measuring the Influence of Noise Reduction on Listening Effort in Hearing-Impaired Listeners Using Response Times to an Arithmetic Task in Noise

Single microphone noise reduction (NR) in hearing aids can provide a subjective benefit even when there is no objective improvement in speech intelligibility. A possible explanation lies in a reduction of listening effort. Previously, we showed that response times (a proxy for listening effort) to an auditory-only dual-task were reduced by NR in normal-hearing (NH) listeners. In this study, we investigate if the results from NH listeners extend to the hearing-impaired (HI), the target group for hearing aids. In addition, we assess the relevance of the outcome measure for studying and understanding listening effort. Twelve HI subjects were asked to sum two digits of a digit triplet in noise. We measured response times to this task, as well as subjective listening effort and speech intelligibility. Stimuli were presented at three signal-to-noise ratios (SNR; –5, 0, +5 dB) and in quiet. Stimuli were processed with ideal or nonideal NR, or unprocessed. The effect of NR on response times in HI listeners was significant only in conditions where speech intelligibility was also affected (–5 dB SNR). This is in contrast to the previous results with NH listeners. There was a significant effect of SNR on response times for HI listeners. The response time measure was reasonably correlated (R₁₄₂ = 0.54) to subjective listening effort and showed a sufficient test–retest reliability. This study thus presents an objective, valid, and reliable measure for evaluating an aspect of listening effort of HI listeners.

Listening effort: Are we measuring cognition or affect, or both?

Listening effort is increasingly recognized as a factor in communication, particularly for and with nonnative speakers, for the elderly, for individuals with hearing impairment and/or for those working in noise. However, as highlighted by McGarrigle et al., International Journal of Audiology, 2014, 53, 433-445, the term "listening effort" encompasses a wide variety of concepts, including the engagement and control of multiple possibly distinct neural systems for information processing, and the affective response to the expenditure of those resources in a given context. Thus, experimental or clinical methods intended to objectively quantify listening effort may ultimately reflect a complex interaction between the operations of one or more of those information processing systems, and/or the affective and motivational response to the demand on those systems. Here we examine theoretical, behavioral, and psychophysiological factors related to resolving the question of what we are measuring, and why, when we measure "listening effort." This article is categorized under: Linguistics > Language in Mind and Brain Psychology > Theory and Methods Psychology > Attention Psychology > Emotion and Motivation.

Speech-Processing Fatigue in Children: Auditory Event-Related Potential and Behavioral Measures

PURPOSE

Fatigue related to speech processing is an understudied area that may have significant negative effects, especially in children who spend the majority of their school days listening to classroom instruction.

METHOD

This study examined the feasibility of using auditory P300 responses and behavioral indices (lapses of attention and self-report) to measure fatigue resulting from sustained listening demands in 27 children (M = 9.28 years).

RESULTS

Consistent with predictions, increased lapses of attention, longer reaction times, reduced P300 amplitudes to infrequent target stimuli, and self-report of greater fatigue were observed after the completion of a series of demanding listening tasks compared with the baseline values. The event-related potential responses correlated with the behavioral measures of performance.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that neural and behavioral responses indexing attention and processing resources show promise as effective markers of fatigue in children.

Impact of Background Noise and Sentence Complexity on Processing Demands during Sentence Comprehension

Speech comprehension in adverse listening conditions can be effortful even when speech is fully intelligible. Acoustical distortions typically make speech comprehension more effortful, but effort also depends on linguistic aspects of the speech signal, such as its syntactic complexity. In the present study, pupil dilations, and subjective effort ratings were recorded in 20 normal-hearing participants while performing a sentence comprehension task. The sentences were either syntactically simple (subject-first sentence structure) or complex (object-first sentence structure) and were presented in two levels of background noise both corresponding to high intelligibility. A digit span and a reading span test were used to assess individual differences in the participants' working memory capacity (WMC). The results showed that the subjectively rated effort was mostly affected by the noise level and less by syntactic complexity. Conversely, pupil dilations increased with syntactic complexity but only showed a small effect of the noise level. Participants with higher WMC showed increased pupil responses in the higher-level noise condition but rated sentence comprehension as being less effortful compared to participants with lower WMC. Overall, the results demonstrate that pupil dilations and subjectively rated effort represent different aspects of effort. Furthermore, the results indicate that effort can vary in situations with high speech intelligibility.

Danish reading span data from 283 hearing-aid users, including a sub-group analysis of their relationship to speech-in-noise performance

OBJECTIVE

This study provides descriptive statistics of the Danish reading span (RS) test for hearing-impaired adults. The combined effect of hearing loss, RS score, and age on speech-in-noise performance in different spatial settings was evaluated in a subset of participants.

DESIGN

Data from published and unpublished studies were re-analysed. Data regarding speech-in-noise performance with co-located or spatially separated sound sources were available for a subset of participants.

STUDY SAMPLE

RS scores from 283 hearing-impaired participants were extracted from past studies, and 239 of these participants had completed a speech-in-noise test.

RESULTS

RS scores (mean = 41.91%, standard deviation = 11.29%) were related to age (p <0.01), but not pure-tone average (PTA) (p = 0.29). Speech-in-noise performance for co-located sound sources was related to PTA and RS score (both p < 0.01, adjusted R-squared = 0.226). Performance for spatially separated sounds was related to PTA (p < 0.01, adjusted R-squared = 0.10) but not RS score (p = 0.484). We found no differences between the standardized coefficients of the two regression models.

CONCLUSIONS

The distribution of RS scores indicated a high test difficulty. We found that age should be controlled when RS scores are compared across populations. The experimental setup of the speech-in-noise test may influence the relationship between performance and RS score.

Memory performance on the Auditory Inference Span Test is independent of background noise type for young adults with normal hearing at high speech intelligibility

Listening in noise is often perceived to be effortful. This is partly because cognitive resources are engaged in separating the target signal from background noise, leaving fewer resources for storage and processing of the content of the message in working memory. The Auditory Inference Span Test (AIST) is designed to assess listening effort by measuring the ability to maintain and process heard information. The aim of this study was to use AIST to investigate the effect of background noise types and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) on listening effort, as a function of working memory capacity (WMC) and updating ability (UA). The AIST was administered in three types of background noise: steady-state speech-shaped noise, amplitude modulated speech-shaped noise, and unintelligible speech. Three SNRs targeting 90% speech intelligibility or better were used in each of the three noise types, giving nine different conditions. The reading span test assessed WMC, while UA was assessed with the letter memory test. Twenty young adults with normal hearing participated in the study. Results showed that AIST performance was not influenced by noise type at the same intelligibility level, but became worse with worse SNR when background noise was speech-like. Performance on AIST also decreased with increasing memory load level. Correlations between AIST performance and the cognitive measurements suggested that WMC is of more importance for listening when SNRs are worse, while UA is of more importance for listening in easier SNRs. The results indicated that in young adults with normal hearing, the effort involved in listening in noise at high intelligibility levels is independent of the noise type. However, when noise is speech-like and intelligibility decreases, listening effort increases, probably due to extra demands on cognitive resources added by the informational masking created by the speech fragments and vocal sounds in the background noise.