Universal prestorage leukoreduction in Canada decreases platelet alloimmunization and refractoriness

Platelets retain function and can be stored following disruption of human leucocyte antigens

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Antibodies to human leucocyte antigen (HLA) Class-I antigens can lead to refractoriness to platelet transfusion. Although this can be overcome by transfusion of HLA-compatible platelets, they are not always available. Disruption of HLA antigens on platelets by acid treatment may be a suitable alternative when no other components are available. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of HLA disruption and subsequent storage of platelet components.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Platelet components were treated with 0.9% saline or citric acid solution (pH 3.0), and then stored until expiry (Day 7). HLA and platelet glycoprotein expression, platelet viability, activation and sialylation were measured by flow cytometry. Release of soluble factors was measured by ELISA and metabolism by biochemistry analyser. Reactivity to patient anti-sera containing anti-HLA antibodies was measured using platelet immunofluorescence tests (PIFTs) and monoclonal antibody immobilization of platelet antigen (MAIPA) assays. Platelet function was measured using aggregometry and thromboelastography (TEG).

RESULTS

Acid treatment reduced detection of HLA Class-I on platelets by 75%, with significant reductions in reactivity to patient anti-sera. Acid treatment reduced platelet content and viability, increased platelet activation and accelerated metabolism. Glycan cleavage was increased by acid treatment. Treatment reduced platelet activation following agonist stimulation by ADP and TRAP-6, but platelets remained functional, displaying increased aggregation response and reduced time to clot formation by TEG.

CONCLUSION

Although HLA disruption had some detrimental effects, acid-treated platelets remained functional, retaining their capacity to respond to agonists and form clots, and with further development could be used to support refractory patients.

What's in Your Transfusion? A Bedside Guide to Blood Products and Their Preparation

An understanding of the contents of blood products and how they are modified before transfusion will help any physician. This article will review five basic blood products and the five most common product modifications.

Polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid induced inflammation enhances while lipopolysaccharide diminishes alloimmunity to platelet transfusion in mice

Introduction

Alloimmune responses against platelet antigens, which dominantly target the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), can cause adverse reactions to subsequent platelet transfusions, platelet refractoriness, or rejection of future transplants. Platelet transfusion recipients include individuals experiencing severe bacterial or viral infections, and how their underlying health modulates platelet alloimmunity is not well understood.

Methods

This study investigated the effect of underlying inflammation on platelet alloimmunization by modelling viral-like inflammation with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) or gram-negative bacterial infection with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), hypothesizing that underlying inflammation enhances alloimmunization. Mice were pretreated with poly(I:C), LPS, or nothing, then transfused with non-leukoreduced or leukoreduced platelets. Alloantibodies and allogeneic MHC-specific B cell (allo-B cell) responses were evaluated two weeks later. Rare populations of allo-B cells were identified using MHC tetramers.

Results

Relative to platelet transfusion alone, prior exposure to poly(I:C) increased the alloantibody response to allogeneic platelet transfusion whereas prior exposure to LPS diminished responses. Prior exposure to poly(I:C) had equivalent, if not moderately diminished, allo-B cell responses relative to platelet transfusion alone and exhibited more robust allo-B cell memory development. Conversely, prior exposure to LPS resulted in diminished allo-B cell frequency, activation, antigen experience, and germinal center formation and altered memory B cell responses.

Discussion

In conclusion, not all inflammatory environments enhance bystander responses and prior inflammation mediated by LPS on gram-negative bacteria may in fact curtail platelet alloimmunization.

Platelet transfusion refractoriness due to HLA alloimmunization: Evolving paradigms in mechanisms and management

Platelet transfusion refractoriness due to HLA alloimmunization presents a significant medical problem, particularly among multiply transfused patients with hematologic malignancies and those undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplants. HLA compatible platelet transfusions also impose significant financial burden on these patients. Recently, several novel mechanisms have been described in the development of HLA alloimmunization and platelet transfusion refractoriness. We review the history of platelet transfusions and mechanisms of HLA-sensitization and transfusion refractoriness. We also summarize advances in the diagnosis and treatment of platelet transfusion refractoriness due to HLA alloimmunization.

Prospective examination of HLA sensitization after VAD implantation in children and adults

BACKGROUND

Ventricular assist devices (VADs) have improved survival to heart transplantation (HTx). However, VADs have been associated with development of antibodies against human leukocyte antigen (HLA-Ab) which may limit the donor pool and decrease survival post-HTx. Since HLA-Ab development after VAD insertion is poorly understood, the purpose of this prospective single-center study was to quantify the incidence of and evaluate risk factors for HLA-Ab development across the age spectrum following VAD implantation.

METHODS

Adult and pediatric patients undergoing VAD placement as bridge to transplant or transplant candidacy between 5/2016 and 7/2020 were enrolled. HLA-Ab were assessed pre-VAD and at 1-, 3-, and 12-months post-implant. Factors associated with HLA-Ab development post-VAD implant were explored using univariate and multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

15/41 (37%) adults and 7/17 (41%) children developed new HLA-Ab post-VAD. The majority of patients (19/22) developed HLA-Ab within two months of implant. New class I HLA-Ab were more common (87% adult, 86% pediatric). Prior pregnancy was strongly associated with HLA-Ab development in adults post-VAD (HR 16.7, 95% CI 1.8-158, p = 0.01). Of the patients who developed new HLA-Ab post-VAD, in 45% (10/22) the HLA-Ab resolved while in 55% (12/22) the HLA-Ab persisted.

CONCLUSION

More than one-third of adult and pediatric VAD patients developed new HLA-Ab early after VAD implant with the majority having class I antibodies. Prior pregnancy was strongly associated with post-VAD HLA-Ab development. Further studies are needed to predict regression or persistence of HLA-Ab developed post-VAD, to understand modulation of individuals' immune responses to sensitizing events, and to determine whether transiently detected HLA-Ab post-VAD recur and have long-term clinical impact post-heart transplantation.

Human leukocyte antigen alloimmunization prevention mechanisms in blood transfusion

In many fields of clinical medicine and blood transfusion, the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system is crucial. Alloimmunization happens as a result of an immune response to foreign antigens encountered during blood transfusion. This gives rise to alloantibodies against red blood cells (RBCs), HLA, or human platelet antigen (HPA). HLA alloimmunization following allogeneic transfusion was shown to be a result of contaminating white blood cells (WBCs) present in the product. It is a common complication of transfusion therapy that leads to difficulties in clinical intolerance and refractoriness to platelet transfusion during patient management. Single-donor platelets, prophylactic HLA matching, leukoreduction, and irradiation of cellular blood products are some of the mechanisms to prevent HLA alloimmunization during a blood transfusion. Now, the best approach to reduce the occurrence of primary HLA alloimmunization is the removal of WBCs from the blood by filtration.

A meta-analysis of risk factors associated with platelet transfusion refractoriness

BACKGROUND

Platelet transfusion refractoriness (PTR) remains an intractable issue in clinical practice, and is common in hematological patients. At present, it is believed that both immune and non-immune factors play a role. We conducted a meta-analysis of various risk factors which may contribute to PTR.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, and Web of Science were selected as research database platforms. Citations included were further assessed for quality and bias using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. All analyses were performed using Review Manager Version 5.4 and STATA 16.0.

RESULTS

The preliminary search revealed 1069 publications, and 17 (5929 patients in total) were ultimately included in the quantitative analysis. The following variables were associated with the occurrence of PTR: fever (OR = 2.26, 95%CI 2.00-2.55, p < 0.00001), bleeding (OR = 2.10, 95%CI 1.36-3.24, p = 0.0008), female sex (OR = 2.06, 95%CI 1.13-3.75, p = 0.02), antibiotic use (OR = 2.94, 95%CI 1.54-5.59, p = 0.001), and infection (OR = 2.19, 95%CI 1.20-4.03, p = 0.01). Antibodies involved in immune activation were a higher risk factor (OR = 4.17, 95%CI 2.36-7.36, p < 0.00001), and splenomegaly was nearly significant (OR = 1.73, 95%CI 0.97-3.07, p = 0.06).

CONCLUSIONS

We identified some important risk factors for PTR, but further research is needed to identify the many other possible elements that may contribute to or mediate PTR.

Pre-Transplant Platelet Refractoriness and Alternative Donors Are Associated With Cytomegalovirus Retinitis in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Severe Aplastic Anemia

Background

Cytomegalovirus retinitis is a severe, vision-threatening opportunistic infection in an immunodeficient population. Reports on cytomegalovirus retinitis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients due to severe aplastic anemia have been scant. This study assessed the risk of cytomegalovirus retinitis in relation to the pre-transplant status of severe aplastic anemia patients.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective nested case-control study of cytomegalovirus retinitis among severe aplastic anemia patients receiving allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplants in a tertiary care institution that attends severe aplastic anemia patients from southern China from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2018. Each cytomegalovirus retinitis case was matched with four controls without cytomegalovirus retinitis by age and gender. Thirteen pre-transplant parameters were chosen to compare the risk factor levels between the cases and controls. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

A total of 361 severe aplastic anemia patients received hematopoietic stem cell transplants in the study period 2013–2018 in our medical institution, and 31 (8.58%) developed cytomegalovirus retinitis. Cytomegalovirus retinitis was diagnosed in the median of 148 days after transplantation. We confirmed platelet refractoriness more frequently in cases than in controls (p = 0.0005). Compared with human leukocyte antigen-matched sibling donors, alternative donors were significantly more prone to cytomegalovirus retinitis (p = 0.0009). After stepwise selection in multivariate logistic regression, platelet refractoriness (OR 5.41, 95% CI 1.98–15.39), haploidentical donor (OR 7.46, 95% CI 2.19–34.87), and unrelated donor (OR 8.38, 95% CI 2.30–41.34) were associated with an increased risk of cytomegalovirus retinitis.

Conclusions

Pre-transplant platelet refractoriness and alternative donors were significant predictors of cytomegalovirus retinitis in severe aplastic anemia recipients. These results highlight the importance of accounting for existing risks while developing prevention strategies and preemptive treatment for severe aplastic anemia recipients. We recommend that the platelet count be closely monitored and thrombopoietin be properly applied during the period when cytomegalovirus retinitis is prone to occur.

Transfusion-induced platelet antibodies and regulatory T cells in multiply transfused patients

Background

Platelet transfusion refractoriness (PTR) remains a difficult problem in patients requiring long‐term platelet supportive care. However, there are little data on the frequency of platelet antibodies in multiply transfused Chinese patients. Moreover, the relationship between peripheral regulatory T cells (Tregs) and PTR remains unclear.

Methods

We retrospectively studied the frequency of alloimmunization against platelet antigens in patients receiving multiple transfusions between 2013 and 2017. Monoclonal antibody solid‐phase platelet antibody test (MASPAT) kits were used to screen for platelet antibodies before each platelet transfusion. Peripheral Tregs and CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127⁻ T cells were detected by flow cytometry, while transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) and interleukin (IL)‐17 cytokines were detected by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

A total of 399 patients who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled for the analysis of platelet antibodies and refractoriness. Among these patients, 10 (2.5%) were positive for platelet antibodies before transfusion and 47 (11.8%) became antibody‐positive during the study period. The number of alloimmunized patients was significantly higher in patients with hematological disease as compared with other disease groups (p < 0.05). Refractoriness and alloimmunization occurred in 77 (19.3%) and 22 (28.6%) patients, respectively. There were no significant differences in CD4⁺, CD8⁺, and CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127⁻ T cell numbers and plasma levels of TGF‐β1 and IL‐17 between patients with PTR and the control group.

Conclusions

Refractoriness was common in patients undergoing multiple platelet transfusions (19.3%), with alloimmunization observed in 28.6% of patients. However, Tregs in peripheral blood may not play a key role in PTR.

An epitope-based approach of HLA-matched platelets for transfusion: a noninferiority crossover randomized trial

Platelet transfusion refractoriness results in adverse outcomes and increased health care costs. Managing refractoriness resulting from HLA alloimmunization necessitates the use of HLA antigen-matched platelets but requires a large platelet donor pool and does not guarantee full matching. We report the first randomized, double-blind, noninferiority, crossover trial comparing HLA epitope-matched (HEM) platelets with HLA standard antigen-matched (HSM) platelet transfusions. Alloimmunized, platelet-refractory, thrombocytopenic patients with aplastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, or acute myeloid leukemia were eligible. HEM platelets were selected using HLAMatchMaker epitope (specifically eplet) matching. Patients received up to 8 prophylactic HEM and HSM transfusions provided in random order. The primary outcome was 1-hour posttransfusion platelet count increment (PCI). Forty-nine patients were randomized at 14 UK hospitals. For intention to treat, numbers of evaluable transfusions were 107 and 112 for HEM and HSM methods, respectively. Unadjusted mean PCIs for HEM and HSM methods were 23.9 (standard deviation [SD], 15) and 23.5 (SD, 14.1), respectively (adjusted mean difference, -0.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], -2.9 to 2.8). Because the lower limit of the 95% CI was not greater than the predefined noninferiority limit, the HEM approach was declared noninferior to the HSM approach. There were no differences in secondary outcomes of platelet counts, transfusion requirements, and bleeding events. Adequate 1-hour PCI was more frequently observed, with a mean number of 3.2 epitope mismatches, compared with 5.5 epitope mismatches for inadequate 1-hour increments. For every additional epitope mismatch, the likelihood of an adequate PCI decreased by 15%. Epitope-matched platelets should be considered to support HLA alloimmunized patients. This trial was registered at www.isrctn.com as #ISRCTN23996532.

HLA class I depletion by citric acid, and irradiation of apheresis platelets for transfusion of refractory patients

BACKGROUND

Patients can form antibodies to foreign human leukocyte antigen (HLA) Class I antigens after exposure to allogeneic cells. These anti-HLA class I antibodies can bind transfused platelets (PLTs) and mediate their destruction, thus leading to PLT refractoriness. Patients with PLT refractoriness need HLA-matched PLTs, which require expensive HLA typing of donors, antibody analyses of patient sera and/or crossmatching. An alternative approach is to reduce PLT HLA Class I expression using a brief incubation in citric acid on ice at low pH.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Apheresis PLT concentrates were depleted of HLA Class I complexes by 5 minutes incubation in ice-cold citric acid, at pH 3.0. Surface expression of HLA Class I complexes, CD62P, CD63, phosphatidylserine, and complement factor C3c was analyzed by flow cytometry. PLT functionality was tested by thromboelastography (TEG).

RESULTS

Acid treatment reduced the expression of HLA Class I complexes by 71% and potential for C3c binding by 11.5-fold compared to untreated PLTs. Acid-treated PLTs were significantly more activated than untreated PLTs, but irrespective of this increase in steady-state activation, CD62P and CD63 were strongly upregulated on both acid-treated and untreated PLTs after stimulation with thrombin receptor agonist peptide. Acid treatment did not induce apoptosis over time. X-ray irradiation did not significantly influence the expression of HLA Class I complexes, CD62P, CD63, and TEG variables on acid treated PLTs.

CONCLUSION

The relatively simple acid stripping method can be used with irradiated apheresis PLTs and may prevent transfusion-associated HLA sensitization and overcome PLT refractoriness.

Platelet transfusion refractoriness: how do I diagnose and manage?

Platelet refractoriness continues to be a problem for thrombocytopenic patients because the risk of a major spontaneous or life-threatening bleed significantly increases when platelet counts drop below 10 × 109/L. The majority of patients have nonimmune causes driving the refractoriness, such as bleeding, medications, or diffuse intravascular coagulation; however, this article is dedicated to the diagnosis and support of patients with immune-based platelet refractoriness. Antibodies to class I HLA molecules (A and B alleles) are responsible for most immune-based refractory cases, with antibodies to platelet antigens seen much less frequently. Patients may be supported with either crossmatch-compatible or HLA-matched/compatible platelet units. When trying to select HLA units it can be difficult to find a perfect "4 of 4" match for the patient's class IA and IB alleles. In these cases, it is better to use the antibody specificity prediction method, which identifies compatible units that lack antigens recognized by the patient's anti-HLA antibodies. For an algorithmic approach to the patient with platelet refractoriness, see Visual Abstract.

Pathogen-reduced PRP blocks T-cell activation, induces Treg cells, and promotes TGF-β expression by cDCs and monocytes in mice

Alloimmunization against platelet-rich plasma (PRP) transfusions can lead to complications such as platelet refractoriness or rejection of subsequent transfusions and transplants. In mice, pathogen reduction treatment of PRP with UVB light and riboflavin (UV+R) prevents alloimmunization and appears to induce partial antigen-specific tolerance to subsequent transfusions. Herein, the in vivo responses of antigen-presenting cells and T cells to transfusion with UV+R-treated allogeneic PRP were evaluated to understand the cellular immune responses leading to antigen-specific tolerance. Mice that received UV+R-treated PRP had significantly increased transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) expression by CD11b+ CD4+ CD11cHi conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) and CD11bHi monocytes (P < .05). While robust T-cell responses to transfusions with untreated allogeneic PRP were observed (P < .05), these were blocked by UV+R treatment. Mice given UV+R-treated PRP followed by untreated PRP showed an early significant (P < .01) enrichment in regulatory T (Treg) cells and associated TGF-β production as well as diminished effector T-cell responses. Adoptive transfer of T-cell-enriched splenocytes from mice given UV+R-treated PRP into naive recipients led to a small but significant reduction of CD8+ T-cell responses to subsequent allogeneic transfusion. These data demonstrate that pathogen reduction with UV+R induces a tolerogenic profile by way of CD11b+ CD4+ cDCs, monocytes, and induction of Treg cells, blocking T-cell activation and reducing secondary T-cell responses to untreated platelets in vivo.

Human Leukocyte Antigen Alloimmunization and Alloimmune Platelet Refractoriness

Despite significant advancements in the production of platelet products, storage, and transfusion, transfusion refractoriness remains a significant clinical problem, affecting up to 14% of hematological patients receiving platelet transfusions. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alloimmunization is a major cause of immune platelet refractoriness, and its rate can be significantly reduced by implementation of leukoreduction. Despite promising preclinical results, pathogen reduction does not reduce HLA alloimmunization. Patients with HLA alloimmune refractoriness are usually managed with HLA-selected platelet transfusions. In this review, we describe the pathophysiology of HLA alloimmunization and alloimmune refractoriness, as well as options to prevent and treat these transfusion complications. We discuss the evidence supporting these options and point out the outstanding gaps. Finally, we review the possible future directions for prevention and treatment of alloimmune refractoriness.

Transfusion support: Considerations in pediatric populations

Over 400,000 units of blood and blood products are transfused to pediatric patients annually, yet only sparse high-quality data exist to guide the preparation and administration of blood products in this population. The direct application of data from studies in adult patients should be undertaken with caution, as there are dissimilarities in the pathology and physiology between adult and pediatric patients. We provide an overview of available evidence in the field of pediatric transfusion medicine, summarizing indications for blood product transfusion, thresholds for transfusion and indications for blood product modifications.

HLA Alloimmunization Following Ventricular Assist Device Support Across the Age Spectrum

BACKGROUND

Ventricular assist device (VAD) therapy has become an important tool for end-stage heart failure. VAD therapy has increased survival but is associated with complications including the development of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibodies. We sought to determine the incidence of HLA antibody development post-VAD insertion, across the age spectrum, in patients receiving leukocyte-reduced blood products, with standardized HLA antibody detection methods and to investigate factors associated with antibody development.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of all patients who underwent durable VAD placement between 2005 and 2014. Inclusion criteria included availability of pre- and post-VAD HLA antibody results. Associations between HLA antibody development in the first-year postimplant and patient factors were explored.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine adult and 25 pediatric patients made up the study cohort. Following implant, 31% and 8% of patients developed new class I and class II antibodies. The proportion of newly sensitized patients was similar in adult and pediatric patients. The class I HLA panel reactive antibody only significantly increased in adults. Pre-VAD sensitization, age, sex (pediatrics), and transfusion were not associated with the development of HLA antibodies.

CONCLUSIONS

In a cohort of VAD patients receiving leukocyte-reduced blood products and standardized HLA antibody testing, roughly one-third developed new class I antibodies in the first-year postimplant. Adults showed significantly increased class I panel reactive antibody following VAD support. No patient-related factors were associated with HLA antibody development. Larger prospective studies are required to validate these findings and determine the clinical impact of these antibodies following VAD insertion.

Efficacy of cross-match compatible platelets in multi transfused haemato-oncology patients refractory to platelet transfusion

BACKGROUND

Platelet refractoriness, which leads to platelet transfusion failure resulting in significant morbidity and long hospital stay, is routinely not investigated.

AIMS

To determine the efficacy of cross-match compatible platelets in multi-transfused alloimmunized hemato-oncological patients refractory to platelet transfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

149 ABO compatible single donor apheresis platelet transfusions given to 38 alloimmunized refractory patients. Corrected Count Increment (CCI) <5000 (1 h) was taken to define refractoriness. Solid-phase red cell adherence assay was used to determine the alloimmunization status and platelet cross-matching. Post Transfusion Platelet Increment, CCI and the Percentage Platelet Recovery were used to monitor the effectiveness of platelet transfusion. ANOVA test followed by Post hoc test Tukey HSD used to compare group means and classified into three groups depending upon the cross-matching and compatibility status. Categorical data was analysed for various outcomes using Pearson's chi square test or Fischer exact test.

RESULT

Patients showed statistically significant recovery in terms of PPI, CCI and PPR at 1 h post SDAP transfusions when they received cross-matched compatible platelets. The one-hour CCI was significantly higher for cross-match-compatible platelets (19173 ± 2692) than for incompatible (5888 ± 1526) and for uncross-matched (8140 ± 1480). Forty four (97.8%) of 45 cross-matched compatible platelet transfusion episodes showed a satisfactory response in terms of PPI and CCI values as compared to 50 % and 53.9% in uncross-matched group respectively (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Platelet cross-matching is an effective intervention in the management of multi-transfused alloimmunized Haemato-oncological patients, refractory to platelet transfusion.

Human Leucocyte Antigen Sensitisation and Its Impact on Transfusion Practice

Human leucocyte antigen (HLA) sensitisation, including the formation of antibodies against HLA, can cause serious effects in patients receiving blood. Under certain circumstances, donor HLA antibodies in the blood product can trigger the patient's granulocytes to release mediators that cause transfusion-associated lung injury (TRALI), a serious complication of transfusion. The HLA systems of both donor and patient are involved in transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease, which is a rare disease with a high mortality. Patient HLA antibodies can destroy incompatible platelets and may cause refractoriness to platelet transfusion. Identification of a patient's HLA antibody specificities is necessary for issuing compatible platelets to overcome refractoriness. Many techniques for the detection and identification of HLA antibodies have been developed, including complement-dependent cytotoxicity assay, bead-based assays, the platelet adhesion immunofluorescence test, and the monoclonal antibody-specific immobilisation of platelet antigens assay. Different strategies for the selection of HLA-compatible platelets are applied. These strategies depend on the breadth of antibody reactivity and range from avoiding single HLA antigens in the platelet concentrates issued to apheresis of platelets from HLA-identical donors. The mechanisms of HLA sensitisation and the efforts made to provide compatible blood products to sensitised patients are reviewed in this article from the perspective of clinical transfusion medicine.

Transfusion of pathogen-reduced platelet components without leukoreduction

BACKGROUND

Leukoreduction (LR) of platelet concentrate (PC) has evolved as the standard to mitigate risks of alloimmunization, clinical refractoriness, acute transfusion reactions (ATRs), and cytomegalovirus infection, but does not prevent transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD). Amotosalen-ultraviolet A pathogen reduction (A-PR) of PC reduces risk of transfusion-transmitted infection and TA-GVHD. In vitro data indicate that A-PR effectively inactivates WBCs and infectious pathogens.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A sequential cohort study evaluated A-PR without LR, gamma irradiation, and bacterial screening in hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. The first cohort received conventional PC (control) processed without LR, but with gamma irradiation and bacterial screening. The second cohort received A-PR PC (test) processed without: LR, bacterial screening, or gamma irradiation. The primary efficacy outcome was the 1-hour corrected count increment. The primary safety outcome was treatment-emergent ATR. Secondary outcomes included clinical refractoriness, and 100-day status for engraftment, TA-GVHD, HSCT-GVHD, infections, and mortality.

RESULTS

Mean corrected count increment (× 10³ ) of 33 test PC recipients was similar (18.9 ± 8.8 vs. 16.6 ± 8.4; p = 0.296) to that of 31 control PC recipients. Test recipients had a reduced, but nonsignificant, incidence of ATR (test = 9.1%, Control = 19.4%; p = 0.296). The frequencies of clinical refractoriness (0 of 33 vs. 4 of 31 patients) and refractory transfusions (6.6% vs. 19.3%) were lower in the test cohort (p = 0.05 and 0.02), respectively. No patient in either cohort had TA-GVHD. Day 100 engraftment, HSCT-GVHD, mortality, and infectious disease complications were similar between cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicated that A-PR PC without LR, gamma irradiation, or bacterial screening is feasible for support of HSCT.

Immunological Features in the Process of Blood Platelet-Induced Alloimmunisation, with a Focus on Platelet Component Transfusion

Alloimmunisation to platelet antigens is not uncommon; a large number of females, having had pregnancies, developed antibodies to Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) moieties harboured on their foetuses' cells (inherited from the father(s)) that may conflict with further pregnancies and transfused Platelet Components occasionally. This is possible since platelets constitutionally express HLA class I molecules (though in copy numbers that consistently differ among individuals). Platelets also express HPA moieties that are variants of naturally expressed adhesion and aggregation molecules; HPA differences between mothers and foetuses and between donors and recipients explain alloimmune conflicts and consequences. Lastly, platelets express ABO blood group antigens, which are rarely immunising, however transfusion mismatches in ABO groups seem to be related to immunisation in other blood and tissue groups. Transfusion also brings residual leukocytes that may also immunise through their copious copy numbers of HLA class I (rarely class II on activated T lymphocytes, B cells, and dendritic cells). In addition, residual red blood cells in platelet concentrates may induce anti-red blood cell allo-antibodies. This short review aims to present the main mechanisms that are commonly reported in alloimmunisation. It also critically endeavours to examine paths to either dampen alloimmunisation occurrences or to prevent them.

A real-life evaluation of two platelet cross-matching programmes for the treatment of patients refractory to platelet transfusions

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Strategies for overcoming alloimmune refractoriness to random donor platelets are based on the use of compatible platelets selected from large panels of HLA-typed donors or cross-matching (XM). The aim of this study was to review the effectiveness of a platelet XM programme for treating refractory haematological patients at Milan's Policlinico Hospital (PHM) 2002-2014 and Spedali Civili in Brescia (SCB) 2013-2016.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A commercially available solid-phase antibody detection system was used for platelet antibody detection and XM. Forty-nine alloimmune refractory patients at PHM and 13 at SCB, respectively, received a median [IQR] of 12 [6-13] and 18 [13-15] XM compatible platelet transfusions after the detection of refractoriness. The absolute increases in post-transfusion platelet counts obtained using random, and XM platelets were retrieved from the patients' hospital records.

RESULTS

The critical review at SCB showed that the median [IQR] 1 h post-transfusion increase in platelet counts was 3 × 10⁹ /L [1-5] after 47/47 random platelet transfusions, and 10 × 10⁹ /L [2-25] after 325/326 XM compatible platelet transfusions. The documentation concerning the outcomes of XM platelet transfusions at PHM was incomplete, and so the findings of the review were inconclusive.

CONCLUSION

This retrospective analysis confirmed the effectiveness of the XM programme at SCB, but revealed defective data collection and retrieval methods at PHM, thus underlining the importance of such methods. The literature review accompanying this retrospective analysis identified a recently described algorithm for ensuring platelet support in refractory patients that optimally integrates the combined use of XM and HLA typing.

Korean clinical practice guideline for perioperative red blood cell transfusion from Korean Society of Anesthesiologists

Background

Considering the functional role of red blood cells (RBC) in maintaining oxygen supply to tissues, RBC transfusion can be a life-saving intervention in situations of severe bleeding or anemia. RBC transfusion is often inevitable to address intraoperative massive bleeding; it is a key component in safe perioperative patient management. Unlike general medical resources, packed RBCs (pRBCs) have limited availability because their supply relies entirely on voluntary donations. Additionally, excessive utilization of pRBCs may aggravate prognosis or increase the risk of developing infectious diseases. Appropriate perioperative RBC transfusion is, therefore, crucial for the management of patient safety and medical resource conservation. These concerns motivated us to develop the present clinical practice guideline for evidence-based efficient and safe perioperative RBC transfusion management considering the current clinical landscape.

Methods

This guideline was obtained after the revision and refinement of exemplary clinical practice guidelines developed in advanced countries. This was followed by rigorous evidence-based reassessment considering the healthcare environment of the country.

Results

This guideline covers all important aspects of perioperative RBC transfusion, such as preoperative anemia management, appropriate RBC storage period, and leukoreduction (removal of white blood cells using filters), reversal of perioperative bleeding tendency, strategies for perioperative RBC transfusion, appropriate blood management protocols, efforts to reduce blood transfusion requirements, and patient monitoring during a perioperative transfusion.

Conclusions

This guideline will aid decisions related to RBC transfusion in healthcare settings and minimize patient risk associated with unnecessary pRBC transfusion.

The role of pathogen-reduced platelet transfusions on HLA alloimmunization in hemato-oncological patients

BACKGROUND

Platelet transfusions can induce alloimmunization against HLA antigens. The use of pathogen-reduced platelet concentrates (PCs) was suggested to reduce HLA alloimmunization and concomitant transfusion refractoriness.

METHODS

This study investigated HLA alloimmunization in available samples from 448 hemato-oncological patients who were randomized for the Pathogen Reduction Evaluation and Predictive Analytical Rating Score (PREPAReS) trial to receive either untreated or pathogen-reduced PCs (Mirasol, Terumo BCT Inc.). Anti-HLA Class I and II antibodies were determined before the first platelet transfusion and weekly thereafter using multiplex assay with standard cutoffs to detect low- as well as high-level antibodies.

RESULTS

When using the lower cutoff, in patients who were antibody negative at enrollment, 5.4% (n = 12) developed anti-HLA Class I antibodies after receiving untreated PCs, while this was significantly higher in patients receiving pathogen-reduced PCs, 12.8% (n = 29; p = 0.009, intention-to-treat [ITT] analysis). A similar but nonsignificant trend was observed in the per-protocol (PP) analysis (5.4% vs. 10.1%; p = 0.15). HLA class II antibody formation was similar between both types of PCs in the ITT analysis, while the PP analysis showed a trend toward lower immunization after receiving pathogen-reduced PCs. Multivariate analysis identified receiving pathogen-reduced platelets as an independent risk factor for HLA Class I alloimmunization (ITT: odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 3.02 [1.42-6.51], PP: odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 2.77 [1.00-5.40]), without affecting HLA Class II alloimmunization. When using the high cutoff value, the difference in HLA Class I alloimmunization between study arms remained significant in the ITT analysis and again was not significant in the PP analysis.

CONCLUSION

Our data clearly indicate that Mirasol pathogen inactivation does not prevent HLA Class I or II alloimmunization after platelet transfusions.

Applicability of an instrument to identify human leukocyte antigen-compatible donors for platelet transfusions

Background

The selection of compatible human leukocyte antigen platelets has been associated with improved platelet increments. Therefore, an effective strategy would be the selection of donors who are genetically compatible according to the human leukocyte antigen system. Nonetheless, this is costly as it concerns a highly polymorphic system, which requires a large bank of genotyped donors.

Methods

This study evaluated the feasibility of virtual crossmatching using EpVix software, which simplifies the identification of compatible donors or donors with acceptable incompatibilities.

Results

Forty-three oncohematological patients were evaluated, in 96 platelet transfusion episodes with 16.3% of the patients being found to be refractory to platelet transfusions. Eight alloimmunized, multitransfused patients were selected to evaluate human leukocyte antigen compatibility against a bank of 336 platelet donors. At least partially compatible donors were found for all patients. The number of compatible donors was found to be inversely proportional to the human leukocyte antigen-panel reactive antibody score of each patient. It was noted that five patients with scores of 15% or less had at least 190 compatible donors; four fully compatible donors were found for two other patients with scores greater than 80% and only one patient (score of 93%) did not have a fully compatible donor. However, for this last patient, 40 donors were partially compatible according to the software.

Conclusion

The results showed the effectiveness of the use of the EpVix tool to identify potential platelet donors for multitransfused and/or alloimmunized patients, even with a small number of human leukocyte antigen genotyped donors available.

Storage-Induced Platelet Apoptosis Is a Potential Risk Factor for Alloimmunization Upon Platelet Transfusion

Platelet transfusion can elicit alloimmune responses leading to alloantibody formation against donor-specific polymorphic residues, ultimately resulting in platelet transfusion refractoriness. Universal leukoreduction significantly reduced the frequency of alloimmunization after platelet transfusion, thereby showing the importance of white blood cells (WBCs) in inducing this alloresponse. It is, however, unknown if the residual risk for alloimmunization is caused by WBCs remaining after leukoreduction or if alloimmunization can be induced by platelets themselves. This study investigated the capacity of platelets to induce alloimmunization and identified potential product-related risk factors for alloimmunization. First, internalization of allogeneic platelets by dendritic cells (DCs) was demonstrated by confocal microscopy. Second, after internalization, presentation of platelet-derived peptides was shown by mass spectrometry analysis of human leukocytes antigen (HLA)-DR eluted peptides. Third, platelet-loaded DCs induced platelet-specific CD4 T cell responses. Altogether, this indicates a platelet-specific ability to induce alloimmunization. Therefore, factors enhancing platelet internalization may be identified as risk factor for alloimmunization by platelet concentrates. To investigate if storage of platelets is such a risk factor, internalization of stored platelets was compared with fresh platelets and showed enhanced internalization of stored platelets. Storage-induced apoptosis and accompanied phosphatidylserine exposure seemed to be instrumental for this. Indeed, DCs pre-incubated with apoptotic platelets induced the strongest IFN-γ production by CD4 T cells compared with pre-incubation with untreated or activated platelets. In conclusion, this study shows the capacity of platelets to induce platelet-specific alloimmune responses. Furthermore, storage-induced apoptosis of platelets is identified as potential risk factor for alloimmunization after platelet transfusions.

Transfusion-associated hazards: A revisit of their presentation

As a therapy or a support to other therapies, despite being largely beneficial to patients in general, transfusion it is not devoid of some risks. In a moderate number of cases, patients may manifest adverse reactions, otherwise referred to as transfusion-associated hazards (TAHs). The latest French 2016 haemovigilance report indicates that 93% of TAHs are minor (grade 1), 5.5% are moderate (grade 2) and 1.6% are severe (grade 3), with only five deaths (grade 4) being attributed to transfusion with relative certainty (imputability of level [or grade] 1 to 3). Health-care providers need to be well aware of the benefits and potential risks (to best evaluate and discuss the benefit-risk ratio), how to prevent TAHs, the overall costs and the availability of alternative therapeutic options. In high-income countries, most blood establishments (BEs) and hospital blood banks (HBBs) have developed tools for reporting and analysing at least severe transfusion reactions. With nearly two decades of haemovigilance, transfusion reaction databases should be quite informative, though there are four main caveats that prevent it from being fully efficient: (ai) reporting is mainly declarative and is thus barely exhaustive even in countries where it is mandatory by law; (aii) it is often difficult to differentiate between the different complications related to transfusion, diseases, comorbidities and other types of therapies in patients suffering from debilitating conditions; (aiii) there is a lack of consistency in the definitions used to describe and report some transfusion reactions, their severity and their likelihood of being related to transfusion; and (aiv) it is difficult to assess the imputability of a particular BC given to a patient who has previously received many BCs over a relatively short period of time. When compiling all available information published so far, it appears that TAHs can be analysed using different approaches: (bi) their pathophysiological nature; (bii) their severity; (biii) the onset scheme; (biv) a quality assessment (preventable or non-preventable); (bv) their impact on ongoing therapy. Moreover, TAHs can be reported either in a non-integrative or in an integrative way; in the latter case, presentation may also differ when issued by a blood establishment or a treating ward. At some point, a recapitulative document would be useful to gain a better understanding of TAHs in order to decrease their occurrence and severity and allow decision makers to determine action plans: this is what this review attempts to make. This review attempts to merge the different aspects, with a focus on the hospital side, i.e., how the most frequent TAHs can be avoided or mitigated.

Platelet component transfusion and alloimmunization: Where do we stand?

Platelet transfusion in patients, particularly in onco-haematology, is frequent and can become chronic in some cases. Post-transfusion alloimmunization is often seen, in practice. The risk of this is significantly improved in multitransfused patients. Several classes of antigens binding on platelets (HLA and HPA) are involved and also red blood cell antigens (residual red blood cells in platelet concentrates). Platelet alloimmunization causes a poor transfusion response, refractoriness and, more rarely, post-transfusion purpura. In an alloimmunized recipient, the efficiency of platelet transfusion is based on the selection of compatible products. Significant technical progress means that several methods are currently available to ensure a good post-transfusion platelet count and a satisfactory clinical outcome for the patient.

Platelet Transfusion for Patients With Cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline Update

Purpose

To provide evidence-based guidance on the use of platelet transfusion in people with cancer. This guideline updates and replaces the previous ASCO platelet transfusion guideline published initially in 2001.

Methods

ASCO convened an Expert Panel and conducted a systematic review of the medical literature published from September 1, 2014, through October 26, 2016. This review builds on two 2015 systematic reviews that were conducted by the AABB and the International Collaboration for Transfusion Medicine Guidelines. For clinical questions that were not addressed by the AABB and the International Collaboration for Transfusion Medicine Guidelines (the use of leukoreduction and platelet transfusion in solid tumors or chronic, stable severe thrombocytopenia) or that were addressed partially (invasive procedures), the ASCO search extended back to January 2000.

Results

The updated ASCO review included 24 more recent publications: three clinical practice guidelines, eight systematic reviews, and 13 observational studies.

Recommendations

The most substantial change to a previous recommendation involved platelet transfusion in the setting of hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Based on data from randomized controlled trials, adult patients who undergo autologous stem-cell transplantation at experienced centers may receive a platelet transfusion at the first sign of bleeding, rather than prophylactically. Prophylactic platelet transfusion at defined platelet count thresholds is still recommended for pediatric patients undergoing autologous stem-cell transplantation and for adult and pediatric patients undergoing allogeneic stem-cell transplantation. Other recommendations address platelet transfusion in patients with hematologic malignancies or solid tumors or in those who undergo invasive procedures. Guidance is also provided regarding the production of platelet products, prevention of Rh alloimmunization, and management of refractoriness to platelet transfusion ( www.asco.org/supportive-care-guidelines and www.asco.org/guidelineswiki ).

Platelets from donors with consistently low HLA-B8, -B12, or -B35 expression do not undergo antibody-mediated internalization

HLA-B8, -B12, or -B35 expression on platelets varies significantly between donors and in certain donors is consistently low or undetectable. Antibody-mediated internalization of platelets correlates with antigen expression and is absent in platelets with low HLA expression.

Extended Small-Dose Platelet Transfusions in Multitransfused Hemato-Oncological Patients: A Single-Center Experience

BACKGROUND

Refractoriness to platelet transfusion, prevalent among 15-20% of hemato-oncological patients, is associated with multitransfusions and inferior outcomes. We evaluated the effectiveness of extended slow-dose transfusion (ESDT) in increasing platelet increments in multitransfused patients.

METHODS

Patients treated after the implementation of ESDT were compared with historical controls treated with standard single-donor platelet (SDP) transfusions. Cohorts of early and late recipients were assembled for comparison, i.e. the 8th or 9th and 11th platelet unit per patient, respectively. Patients in the ESDT group received transfusions equal to half an SDP unit, administered over 4 h. Effectiveness was defined as a higher corrected count increment (CCI) at 1, 12, and 24 h after transfusion.

RESULTS

In the early-recipients cohort, 24-h-posttransfusion increments were available for 29 ESDT patients and 6 standard patients, and did not differ significantly between the groups (p = 0.078). The 24-h-posttransfusion increment was available for 20 ESDT patients and 7 standard patients in the late-recipients cohort. The CCI was significantly higher in the ESDT group (p = 0.042). ABO compatibility improved the CCI (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

ESDT demonstrated slightly higher increments at 24 h after transfusion in late recipients, suggesting this could be a cost-effective approach for the treatment of thrombocytopenic multitransfused hemato-oncological patients.

Past, present and forecast of transfusion medicine: What has changed and what is expected to change?

Blood transfusion is the second most used medical procedures in health care systems worldwide. Over the last few decades, significant changes have been evolved in transfusion medicine practices. These changes were mainly needed to increase safety, efficacy, and availability of blood products as well as reduce recipients' unnecessary exposure to allogeneic blood. Blood products collection, processing, and storage as well as transfusion practices throughout all patient populations were the main stream of these changes. Health care systems across the world have adopted some or most of these changes to reduce transfusion risks, to improve overall patients' outcome, and to reduce health care costs. In this article, we are going to present and discuss some of these recent modifications and their impact on patients' safety.

Complex Transfusion Issues in Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Advances in the fields of pediatric transfusion medicine and hematopoietic stem cell transplant have resulted in improved outcomes but also present new questions for research. The diagnostic capabilities involved in transfusion medicine have improved in recent times, now including methods for determination of red blood cell minor antigens, detection of anti-human leukocyte antigen antibodies, and noninvasive iron quantification. At the same time, transplants are being performed for more indications including nonmalignant disease and with less intense conditioning regimens that allow some recipient blood cells to persist after transplant. We are therefore faced with new opportunities to understand the implications of transfusion medicine testing and to develop data-driven guidelines relevant to the current-day approach to transfusion and transplantation.

Modifications to Blood Components: When to Use them and What is the Evidence?

Blood component modifications can be performed by the hospital blood bank for select clinical indications. In general, modification of blood components increases costs and may delay availability of the blood component because of the additional time required for some modification steps. However, the benefit of blood product modification may outweigh these concerns. Common modifications include leukoreduction, irradiation, volume reduction, splitting, and washing. Modification availability and selection practice may vary from hospital to hospital. In this article, available blood component modifications are described along with the benefits, drawbacks, and specific clinical indications supporting their use.

Leucoreduction of blood components: an effective way to increase blood safety?

Over the past 30 years, it has been demonstrated that removal of white blood cells from blood components is effective in preventing some adverse reactions such as febrile non-haemolytic transfusion reactions, immunisation against human leucocyte antigens and human platelet antigens, and transmission of cytomegalovirus. In this review we discuss indications for leucoreduction and classify them into three categories: evidence-based indications for which the clinical efficacy is proven, indications based on the analysis of observational clinical studies with very consistent results and indications for which the clinical efficacy is partial or unproven.

Incidence of hypotension and acute hypotensive transfusion reactions following platelet concentrate transfusions

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Platelet concentrates (PCs) are associated with transfusion reactions involving hypotension, particularly bradykinin-mediated acute hypotensive transfusion reactions. This study aims to determine the incidence of hypotensive events and more specifically acute hypotensive transfusion reaction associated with PC transfusions. We also sought to ascertain whether these reactions are associated with elevated bradykinin levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a prospective descriptive study of PCs administered at Sainte-Justine Hospital over 28 months. All PCs administered during this period were screened for hypotension through review of all transfusion-associated reaction reports (TARRs) sent to the blood bank. All residual PC bags were returned to the blood bank. TARRs associated with hypotension were reviewed by adjudicators that established the imputability of the PC transfusion to the reaction. Bradykinin levels were sampled in the first 168 PC bags returned to the blood bank. Levels were compared between PCs associated with hypotension and control PCs not associated with hypotension.

RESULTS

A total of 3672 PC bags were returned to the blood bank; 25 PCs were associated with hypotension. Adjudicators ascertained that five hypotensive events were imputable to PCs of which one was an acute hypotensive transfusion reaction (incidence: 0·03%). Bradykinin level in the latter PC was 10 pg/ml, whereas levels were 226·2 ± 1252 pg/ml in the 143 control PCs.

CONCLUSION

Our results show a low incidence of hypotension after PC transfusion. We identified only one acute hypotensive transfusion reaction. No correlation between bradykinin level and the occurrence of acute hypotensive reactions could be observed given that only one event was identified.

Platelet refractoriness--practical approaches and ongoing dilemmas in patient management

Platelet refractoriness can represent a significant clinical problem that complicates the provision of platelet transfusions, is associated with adverse clinical outcomes and increases health care costs. Although it is most frequently due to non-immune platelet consumption, immunological factors are also often involved. Human leucocyte antigen (HLA) alloimmunization is the most important immune cause. Despite the fact that systematic reviews of the clinical studies evaluating different techniques for selecting HLA compatible platelets have not been powered to demonstrate improved clinical outcomes, platelet refractoriness is currently managed by the provision of HLA-matched or cross matched platelets. This review will address a practical approach to the diagnosis and management of platelet refractoriness while highlighting on-going dilemmas and knowledge gaps.

Repeated exposure rather than the total volume of transfused components may influence the incidence of allergic transfusion reactions

BACKGROUND

The plasma fraction of blood components has an essential role in the etiology of allergic transfusion reactions (ATRs). The difference of incidences of ATRs between fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) and platelet concentrates (PCs), in which plasma is the main component, is not clearly understood. This study compares the frequency of ATRs to FFP versus PCs on both first and subsequent (nonfirst) transfusions and considers the factors influencing the risk of ATRs.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Five hospitals agreed to systematically collect and share 2 years of data (January 2010 through December 2011). This was a retrospective observational analysis of data including the number of transfusion episodes and ATRs for FFP and PCs on first-transfusion patients (without transfusion history) and previously transfused patients.

RESULTS

The incidence of ATRs to PCs (2.51%) was significantly higher than to FFP (1.68%) on subsequent transfusions (p < 0.001). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the incidences of ATRs to FFP (2.67%) and PCs (2.82%) on first transfusions. This discrepancy was most pronounced among males: FFP versus PCs on first transfusions, 2.02% versus 2.60% (p = 0.30); and on subsequent transfusions, 1.58% versus 2.46% (p = 0.0007). Among females, FFP versus PCs on first transfusions was 3.59% versus 3.13% (p = 0.61) and on subsequent transfusions was 1.87% versus 2.61% (p = 0.029).

CONCLUSION

Repeated exposure rather than the total volume of transfused components may influence the incidence of ATRs.

Prevalence of risk factors for platelet transfusion refractoriness in multitransfused hemato-oncological patients at tertiary care center in North India

Background:

This study was designed to determine the prevalence and assess the risk factors responsible for platelet transfusion refractoriness in hemato-oncological patients.

Materials and Methods:

The study included 30 patients. Twelve were clinically diagnosed as aplastic anemia and the 18 were of acute myeloid leukemia. A prospective 3 months follow-up was planned to monitor the response of platelet transfusion therapy, based on their posttransfusion corrected count increment at 1^st and 24^th h. Based on the observations, patients were categorized into refractory and nonrefractory groups. Common nonimmunological causes such as fever, sepsis, bleeding, disseminated intravascular coagulation, chemotherapy, splenomegaly, ABO mismatch, and antithymocyte globulin therapy were monitored. Among the immunological causes, presence of antihuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I antibodies and platelet glycoprotein antibodies in patient's serum were monitored.

Results:

During the study period, 17 (56.66%) patients did not show desired platelet count increment. Transfusion requirements of refractory group for both red cell and platelet product were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in comparison to nonrefractory group. Among immunological causes, anti HLA class I antibodies (P < 0.013), antihuman platelet antigen-5b antibodies (P < 0.033) were significantly associated with refractoriness. Among nonimmunological causes, bleeding (P < 0.019, odd ratio 8.7), fever (P < 0.08, odd ratio 5.2), and infection (P < 0.07, odd ratio 5.4) were found to associated with refractoriness.

Conclusion:

Platelet refractoriness should be suspected in multitransfused patients not showing expected increment in platelet counts and thoroughly investigated to frame further guidelines in order to ensure proper management of these kind of patients.

Platelet transfusion - the new immunology of an old therapy

Platelet transfusion has been a vital therapeutic approach in patients with hematologic malignancies for close to half a century. Randomized trials show that prophylactic platelet transfusions mitigate bleeding in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. However, even with prophylactic transfusions, as many as 75% of patients, experience hemorrhage. While platelet transfusion efficacy is modest, questions and concerns have arisen about the risks of platelet transfusion therapy. The acknowledged serious risks of platelet transfusion include viral transmission, bacterial sepsis, and acute lung injury. Less serious adverse effects include allergic and non-hemolytic febrile reactions. Rare hemolytic reactions have occurred due to a common policy of transfusing without regard to ABO type. In the last decade or so, new concerns have arisen; platelet-derived lipids are implicated in transfusion-related acute lung injury after transfusion. With the recognition that platelets are immune cells came the discoveries that supernatant IL-6, IL-27 sCD40L, and OX40L are closely linked to febrile reactions and sCD40L with acute lung injury. Platelet transfusions are pro-inflammatory, and may be pro-thrombotic. Anti-A and anti-B can bind to incompatible recipient or donor platelets and soluble antigens, impair hemostasis and thus increase bleeding. Finally, stored platelet supernatants contain biological mediators such as VEGF and TGF-β1 that may compromise the host versus tumor response. This is particularly of concern in patients receiving many platelet transfusions, as for acute leukemia. New evidence suggests that removing stored supernatant will improve clinical outcomes. This new view of platelets as pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory agents suggests that innovative approaches to improving platelet storage and pre-transfusion manipulations to reduce toxicity could substantially improve the efficacy and safety of this long-employed therapy.