Toxoplasma gondii down modulates cadherin expression in skeletal muscle cells inhibiting myogenesis

Non-coding RNAs and regulatory networks involved in the Ameson portunus (Microsporidia)-Portunus trituberculatus interaction

Ameson portunus, the causative agent of "toothpaste disease" in Portunus trituberculatus and "slurry-like syndrome" in Scylla paramamosain, has resulted in considerable economic losses in the marine crab aquaculture industry in China. Practical control strategies are yet unavailable. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are crucial components of gene regulation of intracellular parasites, however, their roles in regulating the microsporidia-host interaction remain limited. Here we conducted a whole-transcriptome RNA-seq analysis to identify ncRNAs and to establish the interaction regulatory networks to get further insights into the A. portunus-P. trituberculatus interaction. Totally, 2805 mRNAs, 484 lncRNAs, 5 circRNAs, and 496 miRNAs were identified from A. portunus. These ncRNAs are possibly important regulators for its own energy and substrate metabolism, thereby supporting the intracellular survival and proliferation of A. portunus. DNA replication-associated mRNAs were significantly up-regulated after P. trituberculatus infection with A. portunus. It can be hypothesized that up-regulated lncRNAs may be responsible for the up-regulation of these DNA replication-related genes by miRNAs in P. trituberculatus. The downregulation of metabolic pathways is one of possible strategies of P. trituberculatus to respond the infection of A. portunus. Cross-species miRNAs were suggested to play important roles in the cross-talk of P. trituberculatus-A. portunus, e.g. the disruption of the cytoskeletal organization and normal cell function of host by this microsporidian. The results enrich the knowledge of ncRNAs in microsporidia and offer new insights into microsporidia-host interactions.

MjTX-II, a Lys49-PLA2 from Bothrops moojeni snake venom, restricts Toxoplasma gondii infection via ROS and VEGF regulation

Owing to the lack of efficient therapy and emerging resistance strains, toxoplasmosis affects about one-third of the world's population. Also, pregnancy-related infection can cause vertical transmission and result in fetal death. Despite the global efforts to combat Toxoplasma gondii infection, conventional therapies have been associated with serious side effects. Therefore, it is relevant to search for effective and less-toxic treatments of toxoplasmosis. In this scenario, snake venoms emerged as a promising source of therapeutic molecules due to their wide variety of biological effects. The present study investigated the anti-T. gondii effects of MjTX-II, a Lys49-PLA2 isolated from Bothrops moojeni, in trophoblast cells and villous explants from the third trimester of pregnancy. We found that non-cytotoxic doses of MjTX-II impaired parasite invasion and intracellular growth in BeWo cells. Also, MjTX-II-pre-treated T. gondii tachyzoites exhibited irregular rough surfaces, papules, and dimples, suggesting a possible action directly on the parasites. Moreover, MjTX-II was able to modulate the host environment by increasing ROS and cytokine levels involved in the control of infection. In addition, we observed that MjTX-II decreased VEGF levels and the addition of rVEGF increased T. gondii growth in BeWo cells. Through molecular docking simulations, we verified that MjTX-II is able to bind VEGFR2 and ICAM-1 receptors associated with parasite proliferation and dissemination. This work contributes to the discovery of therapeutic targets against T. gondii infection and for the development of effective and low-toxic antiparasitic molecules against congenital toxoplasmosis.

Extracellular Traps Released by Neutrophils from Cats are Detrimental to Toxoplasma gondii Infectivity

Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, an infectious disease that affects over 30% of the human world population, causing fatal infections in immunocompromised individuals and neonates. The life cycle of T. gondii is complex, and involves intermediate hosts (birds and mammals) and definitive hosts (felines, including domestic cats). The innate immune repertoire against the parasite involves the production of neutrophil extracellular traps (NET), and neutrophils from several intermediate hosts produce NET induced by T. gondii. However, the mechanisms underlying NET release in response to the parasite have been poorly explored. Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate whether neutrophils from cats produce NET triggered by T. gondii and to understand the mechanisms thereby involved. Neutrophils from cats were stimulated with T. gondii tachyzoites and NET-derived DNA in the supernatant was quantified during the time. The presence of histone H1 and myeloperoxidase was detected by immunofluorescence. We observed that cat neutrophils produce both classical and rapid/early NET stimulated by T. gondii. Inhibition of elastase, intracellular calcium, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-δ partially blocked classical NET release in response to the parasite. Electron microscopy revealed strands and networks of DNA in close contact or completely entrapping parasites. Live imaging showed that tachyzoites are killed by NET. We conclude that the production of NET is a conserved strategy to control infection by T. gondii amongst intermediate and definitive hosts.

Toxoplasma gondii Impairs Myogenesis in vitro, With Changes in Myogenic Regulatory Factors, Altered Host Cell Proliferation and Secretory Profile

Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, a parasitic disease with a wide global prevalence. The parasite forms cysts in skeletal muscle cells and neurons, although no evident association with inflammatory infiltrates has been typically found. We studied the impact of T. gondii infection on the myogenic program of mouse skeletal muscle cells (SkMC). The C2C12 murine myoblast cell line was infected with T. gondii tachyzoites (ME49 strain) for 24 h followed by myogenic differentiation induction. T. gondii infection caused a general decrease in myotube differentiation, fusion and maturation, along with decreased expression of myosin heavy chain. The expression of Myogenic Regulatory Factors Myf5, MyoD, Mrf4 and myogenin was modulated by the infection. Infected cultures presented increased proliferation rates, as assessed by Ki67 immunostaining, whereas neither host cell lysis nor apoptosis were significantly augmented in infected dishes. Cytokine Bead Array indicated that IL-6 and MCP-1 were highly increased in the medium from infected cultures, whereas TGF-β1 was consistently decreased. Inhibition of the IL-6 receptor or supplementation with recombinant TGF-β failed to reverse the deleterious effects caused by the infection. However, conditioned medium from infected cultures inhibited myogenesis in C2C12 cells. Activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway was impaired in T. gondii-infected cultures. Our data indicate that T. gondii leads SkMCs to a pro-inflammatory phenotype, leaving cells unresponsive to β-catenin activation, and inhibition of the myogenic differentiation program. Such deregulation may suggest muscle atrophy and molecular mechanisms similar to those involved in myositis observed in human patients.

Mechanisms and pathways of Toxoplasma gondii transepithelial migration

Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous parasite and a prevalent food-borne parasitic pathogen. Infection of the host occurs principally through oral consumption of contaminated food and water with the gastrointestinal tract being the primary route for entry into the host. To promote infection, T. gondii has evolved highly specialized strategies for rapid traversal of the single cell thick intestinal epithelial barrier. Parasite transmigration via the paracellular pathway between adjacent cells enables parasite dissemination to secondary sites of infection where chronic infection of muscle and brain tissue is established. It has recently been proposed that parasite interactions with the integral tight junction (TJ) protein occludin influences parasite transmigration of the intestinal epithelium. We review here the emerging mechanisms of T. gondii transmigration of the small intestinal epithelium alongside the developing role played in modulating the wider TJ-associated proteome to rewire host cell regulatory systems for the benefit of the parasite.

The effect of malaria and anti-malarial drugs on skeletal and cardiac muscles

Malaria remains one of the most important infectious diseases in the world, being a significant public health problem associated with poverty and it is one of the main obstacles to the economy of an endemic country. Among the several complications, the effects of malaria seem to target the skeletal muscle system, leading to symptoms, such as muscle aches, muscle contractures, muscle fatigue, muscle pain, and muscle weakness. Malaria cause also parasitic coronary artery occlusion. This article reviews the current knowledge regarding the effect of malaria disease and the anti-malarial drugs on skeletal and cardiac muscles. Research articles and case report publications that addressed aspects that are important for understanding the involvement of malaria parasites and anti-malarial therapies affecting skeletal and cardiac muscles were analysed and their findings summarized. Sequestration of red blood cells, increased levels of serum creatine kinase and reduced muscle content of essential contractile proteins are some of the potential biomarkers of the damage levels of skeletal and cardiac muscles. These biomarkers might be useful for prevention of complications and determining the effectiveness of interventions designed to protect cardiac and skeletal muscles from malaria-induced damage.

Toxoplasmosis--a global threat. Correlation of latent toxoplasmosis with specific disease burden in a set of 88 countries

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasmosis is becoming a global health hazard as it infects 30-50% of the world human population. Clinically, the life-long presence of the parasite in tissues of a majority of infected individuals is usually considered asymptomatic. However, a number of studies show that this 'asymptomatic infection' may also lead to development of other human pathologies.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study was to collect available geoepidemiological data on seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and search for its relationship with mortality and disability rates in different countries.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

Prevalence data published between 1995-2008 for women in child-bearing age were collected for 88 countries (29 European). The association between prevalence of toxoplasmosis and specific disease burden estimated with age-standardized Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) or with mortality, was calculated using General Linear Method with Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP), geolatitude and humidity as covariates, and also using nonparametric partial Kendall correlation test with GDP as a covariate. The prevalence of toxoplasmosis correlated with specific disease burden in particular countries explaining 23% of variability in disease burden in Europe. The analyses revealed that for example, DALY of 23 of 128 analyzed diseases and disease categories on the WHO list showed correlations (18 positive, 5 negative) with prevalence of toxoplasmosis and another 12 diseases showed positive trends (p<0.1). For several obtained significant correlations between the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and specific diseases/clinical entities, possible pathophysiological, biochemical and molecular explanations are presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis correlated with various disease burden. Statistical associations does not necessarily mean causality. The precautionary principle suggests however that possible role of toxoplasmosis as a triggering factor responsible for development of several clinical entities deserves much more attention and financial support both in everyday medical practice and future clinical research.

Toxoplasma gondii-skeletal muscle cells interaction increases lipid droplet biogenesis and positively modulates the production of IL-12, IFN-g and PGE2

Background

The interest in the mechanisms involved in Toxoplasma gondii lipid acquisition has steadily increased during the past few decades, but it remains not completely understood. Here, we investigated the biogenesis and the fate of lipid droplets (LD) of skeletal muscle cells (SkMC) during their interaction with T. gondii by confocal and electron microscopy. We also evaluated whether infected SkMC modulates the production of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), cytokines interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon-gamma (INF-g), and also the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene induction.

Methods

Primary culture of skeletal muscle cells were infected with tachyzoites of T. gondii and analysed by confocal microscopy for observation of LD. Ultrastructural cytochemistry was also used for lipid and sarcoplasmatic reticulum (SR) detection. Dosage of cytokines (IL-12 and INF-g) by ELISA technique and enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA) for PGE₂ measurement were employed. The COX-2 gene expression analysis was performed by real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

Results

We demonstrated that T. gondii infection of SkMC leads to increase in LD number and area in a time course dependent manner. Moreover, the ultrastructural analysis demonstrated that SR and LD are in direct contact with parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM), within the vacuolar matrix, around it and interacting directly with the membrane of parasite, indicating that LD are recruited and deliver their content inside the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) in T. gondii-infected SkMC. We also observed a positive modulation of the production of IL-12 and IFN-g, increase of COX-2 mRNA levels in the first hour of T. gondii-SkMC interaction and an increase of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) synthesis from 6 h up to 48 h of infection.

Conclusions

Taken together, the close association between SR and LD with PV could represent a source of lipids as well as other nutrients for the parasite survival, and together with the increased levels of IL-12, INF-g and inflammatory indicators PGE₂ and COX-2 might contribute to the establishment and maintenance of chronic phase of the T. gondii infection in muscle cell.

The relationship between Toxoplasma gondii infection and mood disorders in the third National Health and Nutrition Survey

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurotropic protozoan parasite that causes persistent infection in humans. A substantial literature suggests that schizophrenia is associated with increased seroprevalence of T. gondii, but a possible link of the parasite with mood disorders has not been as thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

We examined the association of Toxoplasma-specific immunoglobulin G results with mood disorder outcomes in 7440 respondents from the third National Health and Nutrition Survey, which is a nationally representative sample of the United States noninstitutionalized civilian population. Regression models were adjusted for numerous potential confounders, including tobacco smoking and C-reactive protein levels.

RESULTS

No statistically significant associations were found between T. gondii seroprevalence and a history of major depression (n = 574; adjusted odds ratio [OR]: .8; 95% confidence interval [CI]: .5-1.2), severe major depression (n = 515; adjusted OR: .8; 95% CI: .6-1.2), dysthymia (n = 548; adjusted OR: 1.1; 95% CI: .7-1.8), or dysthymia with comorbid major depression (n = 242, adjusted OR: 1.2; 95% CI: .6-2.4), all p values were > .05, including analysis stratified by gender. However, there was a significant relationship between T. gondii seroprevalence and bipolar disorder type I for respondents in which both manic and major depression symptoms were reported (n = 41; adjusted OR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2-4.8; p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

In a population-based sample, T. gondii seroprevalence is not elevated in unipolar mood disorders but is higher in a subset of respondents with a history of bipolar disorder type 1.