Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in pericardial diseases

A case of constrictive pericarditis with aortic insufficiency: the role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging

Transthoracic echocardiography is recommended as a diagnostic test of choice for constrictive pericarditis. Nevertheless, several limitations exist. Hereby, we present the role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in a case of constrictive pericarditis with concurrent aortic insufficiency that masked the echocardiographic features of ventricular interdependence.

Feasibility and Role of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance in Intensive and Acute Cardiovascular Care

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is established as a key imaging modality in a wide range of cardiovascular diseases and has an emerging diagnostic and prognostic role in selected patients presenting acutely. Recent technical advancements have improved the versatility of this imaging technique, which has become quicker and more detailed in both functional and tissue characterization assessments. Information derived from this test has the potential to change clinical management, guide therapeutic decisions, and provide risk stratification. This review aims to highlight the evolving diagnostic and prognostic role of CMR in this setting, whilst also providing practical guidance on which patients can benefit the most from CMR and which information can be derived from this test that will impact clinical management.

[Potential of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Diagnostics of Transient Constrictive Pericarditis]

The article addresses the diagnostic criteria based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in transient constrictive pericarditis (TCP), a rare form of constrictive pericarditis characterized by temporary signs of constriction. Constrictive pericarditis evident as myocardial thickening and fibrosis results in impaired diastolic filling and can manifest itself with symptoms similar to those of other pathologies, such as restrictive cardiomyopathy. The article presents two clinical cases of TCP, where the role of MRI in the diagnosis and monitoring of patients is highlighted. For diagnostics, echocardiography and MRI were used along with laboratory tests, including the tests for inflammation markers and troponin. MRI allows not only to visualize changes in the pericardial structure but also to monitor changes in the condition, which is important for choosing the treatment tactics. In both cases, symptoms were successfully resolved, and the patients' condition was normalized with drug therapy. The results highlight the importance of early diagnosis and proper management tactics to prevent irreversible changes in the pericardium and heart failure.

Eosinophilic myocarditis: from etiology to diagnostics and therapy

Eosinophilic myocarditis (EM) is a rare, potentially life-threatening, form of inflammatory heart disease characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of the myocardium. Different diseases are involved in its etiopathogeneses, such as eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (or Churg-Strauss Syndrome), hypereosinophilic syndromes, parasitic infections, drug reactions, paraneoplastic syndromes and primary immunodeficiencies (e.g. Omenn Syndrome). There is a wide spectrum of clinical pictures at presentation ranging from chronic restrictive cardiomyopathy (Loeffler cardiomyopathy) to acute necrotizing myocarditis with cardiogenic shock. The genetic contribution and the environmental interplay, such as SARS-CoV-2 infection and related vaccines, are fields not well studied yet. Many non-invasive tools, mainly echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, along with invasive procedures, such as endomyocardial biopsy, are the crucial steps in the diagnostic workup. The correct diagnosis is a challenge but mandatory for timely and appropriate immunosuppressive therapy.

Assessing Acute Pericarditis with T1 Mapping: A Supportive Contrast-Free CMR Marker

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of pericardial T1 mapping as a potential supportive non-contrast cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) parameter in the diagnosis of acute pericarditis. Additionally, we investigated the relationship between T1 mapping values in acute pericarditis patients and their demographic data, cardiovascular risk factors, clinical parameters, cardiac biomarkers, and cardiac function.

METHOD

This retrospective study included CMR scans in 35 consecutive patients with acute pericarditis (26 males, 45.54 ± 23.38 years). Moreover, we included 17 sex- and age-matched healthy controls (12 males, mean age 47.78 ±19.38 years). CMR-derived pericardial T1 mapping values, which included all pericardial structures within the pericardial layers-encompassing both pericardial effusion and pericardial layer thickness-were analyzed and compared between acute pericarditis patients and controls.

RESULTS

Compared to the matched control group, acute pericarditis patients demonstrated significantly lower pericardial T1 mapping values (2137 ms ± 519 vs. 3268 ms ± 362, p = 0.001). In the multivariable analysis, the pericardial T1 mapping value was independently associated with the severity of pericardial late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) (β coefficient = -3.271, p = 0.003). The receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the diagnostic performance of pericardial T1 mapping in discriminating acute pericarditis patients was excellent, with an area under the curve of 0.97 (95% CI = 0.94-0.98), using a threshold of 2862.5 ms.

CONCLUSIONS

Pericardial T1 mapping values could serve as an additional non-contrast CMR parameter for identifying patients with acute pericarditis, demonstrating an independent association with the severity of pericardial LGE.

DEep LearnIng-based QuaNtification of epicardial adipose tissue predicts MACE in patients undergoing stress CMR

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This study investigated the additional prognostic value of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) volume for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) in patients undergoing stress cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging.

METHODS

730 consecutive patients [mean age: 63 ± 10 years; 616 men] who underwent stress CMR for known or suspected coronary artery disease were randomly divided into derivation (n = 365) and validation (n = 365) cohorts. MACE was defined as non-fatal myocardial infarction and cardiac deaths. A deep learning algorithm was developed and trained to quantify EAT volume from CMR. EAT volume was adjusted for height (EAT volume index). A composite CMR-based risk score by Cox analysis of the risk of MACE was created.

RESULTS

In the derivation cohort, 32 patients (8.7 %) developed MACE during a follow-up of 2103 days. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) < 35 % (HR 4.407 [95 % CI 1.903-10.202]; p<0.001), stress perfusion defect (HR 3.550 [95 % CI 1.765-7.138]; p<0.001), late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) (HR 4.428 [95%CI 1.822-10.759]; p = 0.001) and EAT volume index (HR 1.082 [95 % CI 1.045-1.120]; p<0.001) were independent predictors of MACE. In a multivariate Cox regression analysis, adding EAT volume index to a composite risk score including LVEF, stress perfusion defect and LGE provided additional value in MACE prediction, with a net reclassification improvement of 0.683 (95%CI, 0.336-1.03; p<0.001). The combined evaluation of risk score and EAT volume index showed a higher Harrel C statistic as compared to risk score (0.85 vs. 0.76; p<0.001) and EAT volume index alone (0.85 vs.0.74; p<0.001). These findings were confirmed in the validation cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with clinically indicated stress CMR, fully automated EAT volume measured by deep learning can provide additional prognostic information on top of standard clinical and imaging parameters.

Imaging to Facilitate Ventricular Tachycardia Ablation: Intracardiac Echocardiography, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance, and Positron Emission Tomography

Catheter ablation is a well-established and effective strategy for the management of ventricular tachycardia (VT). However, the identification and characterization of arrhythmogenic substrates for targeted ablation remain challenging. Electrogram abnormalities and responses to pacing during VT provide the classical and most validated methods to identify substrates. However, the 3-dimensional nature of the myocardium, nonconductive tissue, and heterogeneous strands of conductive tissue at the border zones or through the nonconductive zones can prohibit easy electrical sampling and identification of the tissue critical to VT. Intracardiac echocardiography is critical for identification of anatomy, examination of catheter approach and contact, assessment of tissue changes during ablation, and even potential substrates as echogenic regions, but lacks specificity with regard to the latter compared with advanced modalities. In recent decades, cardiac magnetic resonance, computed tomography and positron emission tomography have emerged as valuable tools in the periprocedural evaluation of VT ablation. Cardiac magnetic resonance has unparalleled soft tissue and temporal resolution and excels at identification of expanded interstitial space caused by myocardial infarction, fibrosis, inflammation, or infiltrative myopathies. Computed tomography has excellent spatial resolution and is optimal for identification of anatomic variabilities including wall thickness, thrombus, and lipomatous metaplasia. Positron emission tomography excels at identification of substrates including amyloidosis, sarcoidosis, and other inflammatory substrates. These imaging modalities are vital for assessing arrhythmogenic substrates, guiding optimal access strategy, and assessing ablation efficacy. Although clearly beneficial in specific settings, further clinical trials are needed to enhance generalizability and optimize integration of cardiac imaging for VT ablation.

Atrial and ventricular strain using cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the prediction of outcomes of pericarditis patients: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Our study aimed to explore with cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) the impact of left atrial (LA) and left ventricular (LV) myocardial strain in patients with acute pericarditis and to investigate their possible prognostic significance in adverse outcomes.

METHOD

This retrospective study performed CMR scans in 36 consecutive patients with acute pericarditis (24 males, age 52 [23-52]). The primary endpoint was the combination of recurrent pericarditis, constrictive pericarditis, and surgery for pericardial diseases defined as pericardial events. Atrial and ventricular strain function were performed on conventional cine SSFP sequences.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up time of 16 months (interquartile range [13-24]), 12 patients with acute pericarditis reached the primary endpoint. In multivariable Cox regression analysis, LA reservoir and LA conduit strain parameters were all independent determinants of adverse pericardial diseases. Conversely, LV myocardial strain parameters did not remain an independent predictor of outcome. With receiving operating characteristics curve analysis, LA conduit and reservoir strain showed excellent predictive performance (area under the curve of 0.914 and 0.895, respectively) for outcome prediction at 12 months.

CONCLUSION

LA reservoir and conduit mechanisms on CMR are independently associated with a higher risk of adverse pericardial events. Including atrial strain parameters in the management of acute pericarditis may improve risk stratification.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

Atrial strain could be a suitable non-invasive and non-contrast cardiovascular magnetic resonance parameter for predicting adverse pericardial complications in patients with acute pericarditis.

KEY POINTS

• Myocardial strain is a well-validated CMR parameter for risk stratification in cardiovascular diseases. • LA reservoir and conduit functions are significantly associated with adverse pericardial events. • Atrial strain may serve as an additional non-contrast CMR parameter for stratifying patients with acute pericarditis.

Recurrent Pericarditis and Paradigm Shift in Cardiovascular Imaging and Targeted Therapeutics

Recurrent pericarditis poses a significant challenge to patients and clinicians given its high morbidity and health care burden. Since the last iteration of European Society of Cardiology Guidelines in 2015, further insights have been gained into the pathophysiology, multimodality imaging assessment, and treatment of this condition. The purpose of this review is to discuss each of these aspects and highlight the role of imaging-guided therapy and interleukin-1 inhibitors in autoinflammatory phenotypes that together have transformed the care of these patients. Although future investigations are needed to optimize diagnostic surveillance and timing of therapy, recent evidence points at an encouraging paradigm shift in the treatment of recurrent pericarditis.

Acute and Complicated Inflammatory Pericarditis: A Guide to Contemporary Practice

Inflammatory disease of the pericardium represents a relatively common presentation, especially among the young. For the most part, inflammatory pericardial disease can be expeditiously and effectively managed without significant sequelae. However, some individuals present with severe and recurrent illness, representing significant therapeutic challenges. During the past decade, there have been great strides made in developing an evidence-based approach to management of inflammatory pericardial disease, the result of which has been the development of (1) a systematic, protocoled approach to initial care; (2) targeted therapeutics; and (3) specialized, collaborative, and integrated care pathways. Herein we present a review of the current state of the art as it pertains to the diagnostic evaluation and therapeutic considerations in inflammatory pericardial disease with a focus on acute and complicated pericarditis.

Pericardial effusion in oncological patients: current knowledge and principles of management

BACKGROUND

This article provides an up-to-date overview of pericardial effusion in oncological practice and a guidance on its management. Furthermore, it addresses the question of when malignancy should be suspected in case of newly diagnosed pericardial effusion.

MAIN BODY

Cancer-related pericardial effusion is commonly the result of localization of lung and breast cancer, melanoma, or lymphoma to the pericardium via direct invasion, lymphatic dissemination, or hematogenous spread. Several cancer therapies may also cause pericardial effusion, most often during or shortly after administration. Pericardial effusion following radiation therapy may instead develop after years. Other diseases, such as infections, and, rarely, primary tumors of the pericardium complete the spectrum of the possible etiologies of pericardial effusion in oncological patients. The diagnosis of cancer-related pericardial effusion is usually incidental, but cancer accounts for approximately one third of all cardiac tamponades. Drainage, which is mainly attained by pericardiocentesis, is needed when cancer or cancer treatment-related pericardial effusion leads to hemodynamic impairment. Placement of a pericardial catheter for 2-5 days is advised after pericardial fluid removal. In contrast, even a large pericardial effusion should be conservatively managed when the patient is stable, although the best frequency and timing of monitoring by echocardiography in this context are yet to be established. Pericardial effusion secondary to immune checkpoint inhibitors typically responds to corticosteroid therapy. Pericardiocentesis may also be considered to confirm the presence of neoplastic cells in the pericardial fluid, but the yield of cytological examination is low. In case of newly found pericardial effusion in individuals without active cancer and/or recent cancer treatment, a history of malignancy, unremitting or recurrent course, large effusion or presentation with cardiac tamponade, incomplete response to empirical therapy with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, and hemorrhagic fluid at pericardiocentesis suggest a neoplastic etiology.

Postcardiac Injury Syndrome After Cardiac Surgery: An Evidence-Based Review

Postcardiac injury syndrome (PCIS) serves as a comprehensive term encompassing a spectrum of conditions, namely postpericardiotomy syndrome, postmyocardial infarction (MI) related pericarditis (Dressler syndrome), and post-traumatic pericarditis stemming from procedures like percutaneous coronary intervention or cardiac implantable electronic device placement. These conditions collectively give rise to PCIS, triggered by cardiac injury affecting pericardial or pleural mesothelial cells, leading to subsequent inflammation syndromes spanning from uncomplicated pericarditis to substantial pleural effusion. A thorough literature search conducted on MEDLINE/PubMed utilizing search terms including "postacute cardiac injury syndrome," "postcardiac injury syndrome," "postcardiotomy syndrome," "postpericardiotomy syndrome," and "post-MI pericarditis" was instrumental in collating pertinent studies. To encapsulate the amassed evidence, relevant full-text materials were meticulously selected and amalgamated narratively. The pathophysiology of PCIS is proposed to manifest through an autoimmune-mediated process, particularly in predisposed individuals. This process involves the development of anti-actin and antimyosin antibodies after a cascade of cardiac injuries in diverse forms. Treatment strategies aimed at preventing recurrent PCIS episodes have shown efficacy, with colchicine and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, including ibuprofen, demonstrating positive outcomes. Conversely, corticosteroids have exhibited no discernible benefit concerning prognosis or recurrence rates for this ailment. In summary, PCIS serves as a unifying term encompassing a spectrum of cardiac injury-related syndromes. A comprehensive review of relevant literature underscores the autoimmune-mediated pathophysiology in susceptible individuals. The therapeutic landscape involves the proficient use of colchicine and Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to deter recurrent PCIS episodes, while corticosteroids do not appear to contribute to improved prognosis or reduced recurrence rates. This nuanced understanding contributes to an enhanced comprehension of PCIS and its multifaceted clinical manifestations, potentially refining its diagnosis and management.

Epidemiological characteristics, etiological spectrum, and outcomes of adult patients with pericardial effusion at a Teaching Hospital in Somalia

Background

Pericardial effusion (PE) is an abnormal fluid volume in the pericardial space and is a common clinical entity. The incidence of PE is estimated diversely and depends on risk factors, etiologies, and geographic locations.

Objectives

This study aimed to assess the clinical characteristics, etiologic spectrum, echocardiographic features, and outcomes among patients with different types of PE.

Method

This retrospective observational study included 93 patients with confirmed PE. Their medical records were reviewed in the hospital information system of Mogadishu Somali Turkish Training and Research Hospital between April 2022 and September 2022. Patient demographics, clinical characteristics, chest X-rays, echocardiography, laboratory findings, management approaches, and outcome reports were reviewed and recorded.

Results

Out of the 3000 participants, 3.1% (n = 93/3000) met the definition of definitive PE. In this study, we included 51 females and 42 males. Among the patients, 86% (n = 80) had at least one comorbidity, with diabetes (38.7%) and hypertension (37.6%) being the most common. The most frequently reported clinical presentation findings were shortness of breath (67.7%), chest pain (49.4%), cough (47.3%), and palpitations (47.3%). Cardiac tamponade developed in 9.7% (n = 9) of the patients. Pericardial taps were performed in 64.5% of the cases. Our analysis showed that the most common cause of PE was cardiac disease (n = 33, 35.4%), followed by tuberculosis (TB) (n = 25, 26.8%), uremic pericarditis (n = 24, 25.8%), and hypothyroidism (n = 10, 10.7%). Regarding the severity of PE based on echocardiographic findings, nearly half of the patients (n = 46, 49.4%) had mild PE, whereas 26.8% (n = 25) had moderate PE, and 23.6% (n = 22) had severe PE. Two-thirds of the cases (66.6%) were managed with furosemide, 48 (51.6%) patients were treated with an anti-inflammatory, hemodialysis was performed in 24 (25.8%) patients and antituberculous medications were administered to 7 (7.5%) patients. Out of the 93 patients, 24 (25.8%) died during the hospital stay. It was determined that the mortality risk of patients with renal failure was 7.518 times higher than those without (p = 0.004), and the risk for those with TB was 5.554 times higher than those without (p = 0.011). Other variables were not influential on mortality (p > 0.050).

Conclusion

Our study results demonstrate the epidemiological profile of PE in Somalia. The leading causes of PE were cardiac diseases, uremic pericarditis, TB, and hypothyroidism. PE is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in Somalia, especially in individuals with renal failure and TB infection.

Cardiac magnetic resonance in histologically proven eosinophilic myocarditis

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic myocarditis (EM) is a life-threatening acute heart disease. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) excels in the assessment of myocardial diseases but CMR studies of EM are limited. We aimed to describe CMR findings in histologically proven EM.

METHODS

Patients with histologically proven EM seen at an academic center from 2000 through 2020 were identified. Of the 28 patients ascertained, 15 had undergone CMR for diagnosis and constitute our study cohort.

RESULTS

The patients, aged 51 ± 17 years, presented with fever (53%), dyspnea (47%), chest pain (53%), heart block (20%), and blood eosinophilia (60%). On CMR, all 15 patients had myocardial edema with 10 of them (67%) having abnormally high left ventricular (LV) mass as well. LV ejection fraction measured < 50% in 11 patients (73%) and < 30% in 2 (13%), but only 6 (40%) had dilated LV size. Eight patients (53%) had pericardial effusion. LV late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) was found in all but one patient (13/14; 93%). LGE was always multifocal and subendocardial but could involve any myocardial layer. Patients with necrotizing EM by histopathology (n = 6) had higher LGE mass (32.1 ± 16.6% vs 14.5 ± 7.7%, p = 0.050) and more LV segments with LGE (15 ± 2 vs 9 ± 3 out of 17, p = 0.003) than patients (n = 9) without myocyte necrosis. Two patients had LV thrombosis accompanying widespread subendocardial LGE.

CONCLUSIONS

In EM, CMR shows myocardial edema and LGE that is typically subendocardial but can involve any myocardial layer. The left ventricle is often non-dilated with moderate-to-severe systolic dysfunction. Pericardial effusion is common. Necrotizing EM presents with extensive myocardial LGE on CMR.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with acute myocarditis and chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy : A review paper with practical recommendations on behalf of the European Society of Cardiovascular Radiology (ESCR)

Advanced cardiac imaging techniques such as cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) and positron emission tomography (PET) are widely used in clinical practice in patients with acute myocarditis and chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathies (I-CMP). We aimed to provide a review article with practical recommendations from the European Society of Cardiovascular Radiology (ESCR), in order to guide physicians in the use and interpretation of CMR and PET in clinical practice both for acute myocarditis and follow-up in chronic forms of I-CMP.

Prevalence of Pericardial Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Patients After Cardiac Surgery: Clinical and Histological Correlations

BACKGROUND

Pericardial late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is usually associated with active pericarditis, but it is not infrequently found in patients after cardiac surgery even a long time after the intervention. The clinical relevance of this finding and its histological correlates are unknown. We sought to determine the prevalence of chronic pericardial LGE in patients after cardiac surgery.

METHODS

All consecutive patients with previous cardiac surgery, who were referred to cardiovascular magnetic resonance between January 2017 and December 2021 were enrolled in the study. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance examination protocol was adapted to clinical indication but always included standard LGE acquisitions. Two independent observers blinded to clinical data assessed the presence of pericardial enhancement on LGE sequences. Fifteen patients underwent cardiac reintervention and pericardial biopsies were obtained. The primary study end point was to assess the prevalence of pericardial enhancement after cardiac surgery and identify possible determinants. The secondary end point was to correlate pericardial enhancement with clinical symptoms and histopathology.

RESULTS

Two hundred four patients were included in the study. The median time between surgery and cardiovascular magnetic resonance was 160 months (35-226 months). Pericardial LGE was observed in 90 patients (44%). All patients were asymptomatic, and no specific treatment for pericarditis was started. All patients remained asymptomatic at a 1-year clinical follow-up. Pericardial LGE was significantly correlated with the number of previous surgeries (P=0.03). Pericardial fibrosis was detected in all 15 pericardial biopsy specimens; pericardial LGE was present in 7 patients (47%) who underwent biopsy. Histological signs of low-grade inflammation were detected in 6 patients (40%) with severe, circumferential pericardial LGE but in no patient without pericardial enhancement.

CONCLUSIONS

Pericardial LGE is a frequent finding even several years after cardiac surgery. Its histological correlate is a chronic subclinical post-pericardiotomy inflammation.

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging of pericardial diseases: a comprehensive guide

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging has been established as a valuable diagnostic tool in the assessment of pericardial diseases by providing information on cardiac anatomy and function, surrounding extra-cardiac structures, pericardial thickening and effusion, characterization of pericardial effusion, and the presence of active pericardial inflammation from the same scan. In addition, CMR imaging has excellent diagnostic accuracy for the non-invasive detection of constrictive physiology evading the need for invasive catheterization in most instances. Growing evidence in the field suggests that pericardial enhancement on CMR is not only diagnostic of pericarditis but also has prognostic value for pericarditis recurrence, although such evidence is derived from small patient cohorts. CMR findings could also be used to guide treatment de-escalation or up-titration in recurrent pericarditis and selecting patients most likely to benefit from novel treatments such as anakinra and rilonacept. This article is an overview of the CMR applications in pericardial syndromes as a primer for reporting physicians. We sought to provide a summary of the clinical protocols used and an interpretation of the major CMR findings in the setting of pericardial diseases. We also discuss points that are less well clear and delineate the strengths and weak points of CMR in pericardial diseases.

Cardiac magnetic resonance in giant cell myocarditis: a matched comparison with cardiac sarcoidosis

AIMS

Giant cell myocarditis (GCM) is an inflammatory cardiomyopathy akin to cardiac sarcoidosis (CS). We decided to study the findings of GCM on cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging and to compare GCM with CS.

METHODS AND RESULTS

CMR studies of 18 GCM patients were analyzed and compared with 18 CS controls matched for age, sex, left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction and presenting cardiac manifestations. The analysts were blinded to clinical data. On admission, the duration of symptoms (median) was 0.2 months in GCM vs. 2.4 months in CS (P = 0.002), cardiac troponin T was elevated (>50 ng/L) in 16/17 patients with GCM and in 2/16 with CS (P < 0.001), their respective median plasma B-type natriuretic propeptides measuring 4488 ng/L and 1223 ng/L (P = 0.011). On CMR imaging, LV diastolic volume was smaller in GCM (177 ± 32 mL vs. 211 ± 58 mL, P = 0.014) without other volumetric or wall thickness measurements differing between the groups. Every GCM patient had multifocal late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) in a distribution indistinguishable from CS both longitudinally, circumferentially, and radially across the LV segments. LGE mass averaged 17.4 ± 6.3% of LV mass in GCM vs 25.0 ± 13.4% in CS (P = 0.037). Involvement of insertion points extending across the septum into the right ventricular wall, the "hook sign" of CS, was present in 53% of GCM and 50% of CS.

CONCLUSION

In GCM, CMR findings are qualitatively indistinguishable from CS despite myocardial inflammation being clinically more acute and injurious. When matched for LV dysfunction and presenting features, LV size and LGE mass are smaller in GCM.

Risk Stratification and Outcomes in Patients With Pulmonary Hypertension: Insights into Right Ventricular Strain by MRI Feature tracking

BACKGROUND

Despite a recommended multidimensional approach for pulmonary hypertension (PH) risk stratification and guidance of treatment decisions, this may not always be achievable in patients with advanced disease. One issue is the lack of an imaging modality to assess right ventricular (RV) structure and function abnormalities.

PURPOSE

To explore the risk stratification and prognostic value of cardiac MR feature tracking (MR-FT)-derived RV strain.

STUDY TYPE

Retrospective.

POPULATION

A total of 80 patients with idiopathic pulmonary artery hypertension (N = 52) or chronic thromboembolic PH (N = 28).

FIELD STRENGTH

A 1.5 T or 3.0 T, balanced steady-state free precession sequence.

ASSESSMENT

All patients underwent laboratory testing, right heart catheterization, and MR imaging (and in 37 cases, a cardiopulmonary exercise test was also performed) within a 1-month period. Cardiac functional parameters and both global longitudinal strain (GLS) and global circumferential strain (GCS) were analyzed. Patients were stratified into low, intermediate, and high-risk groups by guideline suggested stratified values of risk factors. The combined endpoint was death or hospitalization for congestive heart failure assessed during follow-up since the date of MR examination.

STATISTICAL TESTS

Kolmogorov-Smirnov's test, independent-sample t-tests, Wilcoxon's rank-sum tests, one-way analysis of variance, χ² tests or Fisher's exact test, receiver operating characteristic analysis, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, and Cox regression analysis. A P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

The median follow-up duration was 3.4 years. Thirty-five patients presented with combined endpoint including 10 cardiac deaths. RV structural and deformation impairments were significantly associated with combined endpoint (ejection fraction: 31.3% ± 13.2% vs. 38.0% ± 14.8%, hazard ratio [HR: 0.974; GLS: -14.5 [-18.6, -10.9] % vs. -20.4 [-26.0, -13.2] %, HR: 1.071; GCS: -9.8 [-14.5, -7.3] % vs. -12.3 [-19.9, -8.4] %, HR: 1.059). There were significant differences in RVGLS among low, intermediate, and high-risk groups (-19.3% ± 7.2% vs. -17.3% ± 9.4% vs. -11.5% ± 4.4% by cardiac functional class, -21.8% ± 7.3% vs. -19.4% ± 8.2% vs. -12.7 ± 5.3% by NT-proBNP, -19.7% ± 7.7 vs. -15.8% ± 6.5% vs. -12.6% ± 8.2% by cardiac index).

DATA CONCLUSION

RV deformation may aid risk stratification in patients with PH, providing crucial information for RV remodeling, pulmonary hemodynamic condition and exercise capacity.

EVIDENCE LEVEL

3 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.

An Update on the Role of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Cancer Patients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging has a significant and expanding role to play in contemporary cardio-oncology. This review seeks to explore the current and future roles of this imaging modality in the cardio-oncology setting.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is required in diagnosing, monitoring and treating all types of cardiotoxicities (acute coronary syndromes, arrhythmias, myocarditis, pericardial disease, heart failure) and in all types of cancers (breast, gastrointestinal, renal, prostate, haematological etc.). Newer imaging sequences and techniques can help provide additional information and shorten imaging times. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is an integral part of the holistic management of cardio-oncology patients, with increasingly expanding applications in the area.

Autoimmune Pericarditis: Multimodality Imaging

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to understand the underlying mechanism that leads to pericarditis in systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. The underlying mechanism plays a vital role in the appropriate management of patients. In addition, we will review the current landscape of available cardiac imaging modalities with emphasis on pericardial conditions as well as proposed treatment and management tailored toward pericardial autoimmune and autoinflammatory processes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Approximately 22% of all cases of pericarditis with a known etiology are caused by systemic autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic sclerosis, and vasculitis. In recent years, there have been advancements of imaging modalities including cardiac MRI, cardiac CT scan, and PET scan and their respective nuances in regard to contrast use, technique, and views which clinicians may utilize to better understand the extent of a patient's pericardial pathology and the trajectory of his or her disease process. In this review, we will discuss systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases that involve the pericardium. We will also review different imaging modalities that are currently used to further characterize such conditions. Having a deeper understanding of such techniques will improve patient outcomes by helping clinicians tailor treatment plans according to the unique underlying condition.

Multi-Modality Cardiac Imaging for Pericardial Diseases: A Contemporary Review

Advances in multi-modality cardiac imaging have aided the evaluation, surveillance and treatment guidance of pericardial diseases, which have traditionally been a challenging group of conditions to manage. Although echocardiography remains the first-line imaging modality to assess the pericardium, both computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have valuable complimentary roles. It is critical for clinicians to have a clear understanding of the utilities, advantages and disadvantages of these cardiac imaging modalities in pericardial pathologies. This contemporary review provides an update regarding the applications of multi-modality cardiac imaging in the evaluation of pericardial syndromes including acute/recurrent pericarditis, effusion/tamponade, constriction, masses and congenital anomalies.

SCMR expert consensus statement for cardiovascular magnetic resonance of acquired and non-structural pediatric heart disease

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is widely used for diagnostic imaging in the pediatric population. In addition to structural congenital heart disease (CHD), for which published guidelines are available, CMR is also performed for non-structural pediatric heart disease, for which guidelines are not available. This article provides guidelines for the performance and reporting of CMR in the pediatric population for non-structural ("non-congenital") heart disease, including cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, Kawasaki disease and systemic vasculitides, cardiac tumors, pericardial disease, pulmonary hypertension, heart transplant, and aortopathies. Given important differences in disease pathophysiology and clinical manifestations as well as unique technical challenges related to body size, heart rate, and sedation needs, these guidelines focus on optimization of the CMR examination in infants and children compared to adults. Disease states are discussed, including the goals of CMR examination, disease-specific protocols, and limitations and pitfalls, as well as newer techniques that remain under development.

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques and Applications for Pericardial Diseases

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging plays a central role among multimodality imaging modalities in the assessment, diagnosis, and surveillance of pericardial diseases. Clinicians and imagers should have a foundational understanding of the utilities, advantages, and limitations of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and how they integrate with other diagnostic tools involved in the evaluation and management of pericardial diseases. This review aims to outline the contemporary magnetic resonance imaging sequences used to evaluate the pericardium, followed by exploring the main clinical applications of magnetic resonance imaging for identifying pericardial inflammation, constriction, and effusion.

Tuberculosis of the Heart: A Diagnostic Challenge

Tuberculosis of the heart is relatively rare and presents a significant diagnostic difficulty for physicians. It is the leading cause of death from infectious illness. It is one of the top 10 leading causes of death worldwide, with a disproportionate impact in low- and middle-income nations. The radiologist plays a pivotal role as CMR is a non-invasive radiological method that can aid in identifying potential overlap and differential diagnosis between tuberculosis, mass lesions, pericarditis, and myocarditis. Regardless of similarities or overlap in observations, the combination of clinical and certain particular radiological features, which are also detected by comparison to earlier and follow-up CMR scans, may aid in the differential diagnosis. CMR offers a significant advantage over echocardiography for detecting, characterizing, and assessing cardiovascular abnormalities. In conjunction with clinical presentation, knowledge of LGE, feature tracking, and parametric imaging in CMR may help in the early detection of tuberculous myopericarditis and serve as a surrogate for endomyocardial biopsy resulting in a quicker diagnosis and therapy. This article aims to explain the current state of cardiac tuberculosis, the diagnostic utility of CMR in tuberculosis (TB) patients, and offer an overview of the various imaging and laboratory procedures used to detect cardiac tuberculosis.

Parametric mapping CMR for the measurement of inflammatory reactions of the pericardium

Objectives

Although cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is increasingly used to diagnose pericardial inflammation, imaging can still be challenging using conventional CMR techniques. Parametric mapping (T1/T2 mapping) techniques have emerged as novel methods to quantify focal and global changes of the myocardium without contrast agent. The aim of the present study was to implement parametric mapping to facilitate diagnostic decision-making in pericardial inflammation.

Methods

Twenty patients with pericardial inflammation underwent CMR (1.5T system) including T1-weighted/T2-weighted imaging, T1/T2 mapping and late gadolinium enhancement. T1/T2 mapping was performed in end-diastole covering three short-axis slices. Diagnosis of pericardial inflammation was made according to recent guidelines. T1/T2 measurements were pursued by manually drawing regions of interest (ROIs) in the thickened, diseased pericardium carefully avoiding contamination by other cardiac structures. Parametric values were correlated to further markers of pericardial inflammation, such as pericardial thickening and inflammatory parameters.

Results

On average, the pericardium displayed a thickness of 4.8±1.0 mm. Mean T1 value was 1363.0±227.1 ms and T2 value was 123.3±52.6 ms, which were above patient’s myocardial values (myocardial T1: 998.7±81.0 ms, p<0.001, median 1014.46 ms; T2: 68.0±28.9 m, p<0.001) and the values of a group of four patients with chronic pericarditis (T1: 953.0±16.7 ms; T2: 63.2±10.1 ms). T1 and T2 showed a correlation to the extent of the thickened pericardium (R=0.64, p=0.002 for T1, R=0.72, p=0.005 for T2). There was no correlation of pericardial T1/T2 to blood markers of inflammation, myocardial injury (C reactive protein, troponin, creatine kinase) or further CMR parameters.

Conclusions

In patients with pericardial inflammation, parametric mapping showed elevated T1 and T2 values. Parametric mapping may help to facilitate diagnosis of pericardial inflammation if conventional parameters such as pericardial hyperintensity in T1-weighted or T2-weighted imaging or contrast agent uptake are heterogeneous.

Cardiac MRI Findings of Myocarditis After COVID-19 mRNA Vaccination in Adolescents

BACKGROUND. A possible association has been reported between COVID-19 messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccination and myocarditis. OBJECTIVE. The purpose of our study was to describe cardiac MRI findings in patients with myocarditis after COVID-19 mRNA vaccination. METHODS. This retrospective study included patients without known prior SARS-CoV-2 infection who underwent cardiac MRI between May 14, 2021, and June 14, 2021, for suspected myocarditis within 2 weeks of COVID-19 mRNA vaccination. Information regarding clinical presentation, hospital course, and events after hospital discharge were recorded. A cardiothoracic imaging fellow and cardiothoracic radiologist reviewed cardiac MRI examinations in consensus. Data were summarized descriptively. RESULTS. Of 52 patients without known prior SARS-CoV-2 infection who underwent cardiac MRI during the study period, five underwent MRI for suspected myocarditis after recent COVID-19 mRNA vaccination. All five patients were male patients ranging in age from 16 to 19 years (mean, 17.2 ± 1.0 [SD] years) who presented within 4 days of receiving the second dose of a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine. Troponin levels were elevated in all patients (mean peak troponin I value, 6.82 ± 4.13 ng/mL). Alternate possible causes of myocarditis were deemed clinically unlikely on the basis of medical history, physical examination findings, myocarditis viral panel, and toxicology screening. Cardiac MRI findings were consistent with myocarditis in all five patients on the basis of the Lake Louise criteria, including early gadolinium enhancement and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) in all patients and corresponding myocardial edema in four patients. All five patients had a favorable hospital course and were discharged from the hospital in stable condition with improved or resolved symptoms after hospitalization (mean length of hospital stay, 4.8 days). Two patients underwent repeat cardiac MRI that showed persistent, although decreased, LGE. Three patients reported mild intermittent self-resolving chest pain after hospital discharge, and two patients had no recurrent symptoms after discharge. CONCLUSION. In this small case series, all patients with myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination were male adolescents and had a favorable initial clinical course. All patients showed cardiac MRI findings typical of myocarditis from other causes. LGE persisted in two patients who underwent repeat MRI. These observations do not establish causality. CLINICAL IMPACT. Radiologists should be aware of a possible association of COVID-19 mRNA vaccination and myocarditis and recognize the role of cardiac MRI in the assessment of suspected myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination.

Subtle-but-smouldering myocardial injury after immune checkpoint inhibitor treatment accompanied by amyloid deposits

Although cardiac troponin is a highly specific biomarker for myocardial cell injury, it is important to recognize the pitfalls of this test in the diagnosis and management of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) myocarditis. We describe the challenging case of an 81‐year‐old woman with persistently high troponin after undergoing immunotherapy with ipilimumab and nivolumab, and histological evidence of amyloid deposition in the myocardium. The patient received immunosuppressive treatments based on the magnitude of troponin changes because myocarditis was clinically suspected. However, histological examination revealed the deposition of transthyretin amyloid fibrils with only minimal T‐lymphocyte infiltration and no myocyte necrosis, suggesting transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis rather than ICI myocarditis. This case highlights the importance of assessing other causes of persistently high troponin, and the necessity of incorporating comprehensive histological and immunohistochemical examinations of the endomyocardial biopsy, especially when cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging is inconclusive.

The Role of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance in Myocardial Infarction and Non-obstructive Coronary Arteries

Myocardial Infarction with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries (MINOCA) accounts for 5–15% of all presentations of acute myocardial infarction. The absence of obstructive coronary disease may present a diagnostic dilemma and identifying the underlying etiology ensures appropriate management improving clinical outcomes. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is a valuable, non-invasive diagnostic tool that can aide clinicians to build a differential diagnosis in patients with MINOCA, as well as identifying non-ischemic etiologies of myocardial injury (acute myocarditis, Takotsubo Syndrome, and other conditions). The role of CMR in suspected MINOCA is increasingly recognized as emphasized in both European and American clinical guidelines. In this paper we review the indications for CMR, the clinical value in the differential diagnosis of patients with suspected MINOCA, as well as its current limitations and future perspectives.

Deep-Learning Segmentation of Epicardial Adipose Tissue Using Four-Chamber Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging

In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) overload remains often overlooked due to tedious manual contouring in images. Automated four-chamber EAT area quantification was proposed, leveraging deep-learning segmentation using multi-frame fully convolutional networks (FCN). The investigation involved 100 subjects-comprising healthy, obese, and diabetic patients-who underwent 3T cardiac cine MRI, optimized U-Net and FCN (noted FCNB) were trained on three consecutive cine frames for segmentation of central frame using dice loss. Networks were trained using 4-fold cross-validation (n = 80) and evaluated on an independent dataset (n = 20). Segmentation performances were compared to inter-intra observer bias with dice (DSC) and relative surface error (RSE). Both systole and diastole four-chamber area were correlated with total EAT volume (r = 0.77 and 0.74 respectively). Networks' performances were equivalent to inter-observers' bias (EAT: DSCInter = 0.76, DSCU-Net = 0.77, DSCFCNB = 0.76). U-net outperformed (p < 0.0001) FCNB on all metrics. Eventually, proposed multi-frame U-Net provided automated EAT area quantification with a 14.2% precision for the clinically relevant upper three quarters of EAT area range, scaling patients' risk of EAT overload with 70% accuracy. Exploiting multi-frame U-Net in standard cine provided automated EAT quantification over a wide range of EAT quantities. The method is made available to the community through a FSLeyes plugin.

Post-cardiac injury syndrome: An evidence-based approach to diagnosis and treatment

Post-cardiac injury syndrome (PCIS) is an umbrella term used for the post-pericardiotomy syndrome, post-myocardial infarction (MI) related pericarditis (Dressler syndrome), and post-traumatic pericarditis (percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) placement). All these conditions give rise to PCIS due to an inciting cardiac injury to pericardial or pleural mesothelial cells, leading to subsequent inflammation syndromes ranging from uncomplicated pericarditis to massive pleural effusion. We did a literature search on MEDLINE/PubMed for relevant studies using the terms "post-acute cardiac injury syndrome", "post-cardiac injury syndrome", "post-cardiotomy syndrome", "post-pericardiotomy syndrome", "post-MI pericarditis" and to summarize the body of evidence, all relevant full texts were selected and incorporated in a narrative fashion. Pathophysiology of PCIS is suggested as autoimmune-mediated in predisposed patients who develop anti-actin and anti-myosin antibodies following a cascade of cardiac injury in various forms. Colchicine and NSAIDs including ibuprofen are demonstrated as efficacious in preventing recurrent attacks of PCIS while corticosteroids show no benefit on prognosis and recurrence of the disease.

Detection of pericardial flow in black blood-prepared T2 HASTE sequence imaging: Differentiation between pericardial diverticulum and cyst

Pericardial diverticulum is a focal herniation of the pericardium. It is differentiated from a pericardial cyst by the presence of communication with the pericardial cavity. Radiological differentiation between the diverticulum and cyst via computed tomography is difficult unless changes in size are identified with different body positions in additional scans. Herein we describe a case of pericardial diverticulum that was successfully diagnosed via the detection of internal pericardial flow in black blood-prepared T2 half-Fourier acquisition single-shot turbo spin-echo magnetic resonance imaging. Detection of a flow void in the pericardial sac may be a definitive magnetic resonance imaging finding in the diagnosis of pericardial diverticulum.

Role of non-invasive multimodality imaging in autoimmune pericarditis

Systemic autoimmune diseases are an important cause of pericardial involvement and contribute to up to ∼22% cases of pericarditis with a known aetiology. The underlying mechanism for pericardial involvement varies with each systemic disease and leads to a poor understanding of its management. Multimodality imaging establishes the diagnosis and determines the type and extent of pericardial involvement. In this review, we elaborate upon various pericardial syndromes associated with different systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases and the multitude of imaging modalities that can be used to further characterize autoimmune pericardial involvement. Lastly, these forms of pericarditis have a greater likelihood of recurrence, and clinicians need to understand their unique treatment approaches to improve patient outcomes.

Established and Emerging Techniques for Pericardial Imaging with Cardiac Magnetic Resonance

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pericardial diseases include a wide range of pathologies and their diagnosis can often be challenging. The goal of this review is to describe the established and emerging CMR imaging techniques used in the assessment of common pericardial diseases and explain the role of pericardial characterization in their diagnosis and management.

RECENT FINDINGS

CMR is indicated in cases of diagnostic uncertainty and for a comprehensive evaluation of the pericardium and its impact on the heart. This includes assessment of pericardial anatomy and associated cardiac hemodynamics, quantification and characterization of an effusion, disease staging, tissue characterization, guiding management, and even prognostication in some diseases of the pericardium. An emerging technique, pericardial characterization, utilizes various sequences to diagnose and stage pericardial inflammation, act as a biomarker in recurrent pericarditis, and guide management in inflammatory pericardial conditions. Beyond imaging, it has ushered in an era of tailored therapy for patients with pericardial diseases. Future directions should aim at exploring the role of tissue characterization in various pericardial diseases.

Review of pericardial disease on computed tomography

Echocardiography has long been the mainstay in the evaluation of cardiac and pericardial disease. As computed tomography (CT) has advanced, it has become a valuable partner in the imaging of the pericardium. The advantages of CT include a larger field of view, multiplanar reconstruction and increased discrimination between various soft tissues and fluids. CT is less operator dependent and can more easily, and reproducibly, image areas of the pericardium for which echocardiography has poor windows such as the right pericardium. The introduction of EKG gating has decreased cardiac motion artifact and can allow functional evaluation although echocardiography remains the primary source of real-time imaging of cardiac and valve motion. It is essential for the skilled cardiac imager to understand the strengths and weaknesses of CT and its role in the definition and assessment of pericardial disease.

Imaging of Cardiac Infections: A Comprehensive Review and Investigation Flowchart for Diagnostic Workup

Infections of the cardiovascular system may present with nonspecific symptoms, and it is common for patients to undergo multiple investigations to arrive at the diagnosis. Echocardiography is central to the diagnosis of endocarditis and pericarditis. However, cardiac computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging also play an additive role in these diagnoses; in fact, magnetic resonance imaging is central to the diagnosis of myocarditis. Functional imaging (fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography/CT and radiolabeled white blood cell single-photon emission computed tomography/CT) is useful in the diagnosis in prosthesis-related and disseminated infection. This pictorial review will detail the most commonly encountered cardiovascular bacterial and viral infections, including coronavirus disease-2019, in clinical practice and provide an evidence basis for the selection of each imaging modality in the investigation of native tissues and common prostheses.

A highly-detailed anatomical study of normal pericardial structures as revealed by in-vivo computed tomography and magnetic resonance images and ex-vivo novel 3D reconstructions from Visible Human Server

The pericardial cavity, sinuses, and recesses are frequently depicted on Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance (MR).

We here review the normal human pericardial structures as provided by MR imaging of young, healthy subject and CT scans acquired after iatrogenic coronary dissection. We compared such radiological information with cadaveric axial and sagittal sections of the human body provided by the Visible Human Server (VHS), Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lousanne (EPFL), Switzerland.

Acute pericarditis: Update on diagnosis and management

Acute pericarditis accounts for ∼5% of presentations with acute chest pain. Tuberculosis is an important cause in the developing world, however, in the UK and other developed settings, most cases are idiopathic/viral in origin. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) remain the cornerstone of treatment. At least one in four patients are at risk of recurrence. The addition of 3 months of colchicine can more than halve the risk of this (number needed to treat = four). Low-dose steroids can be helpful second-line agents for managing recurrences as adjuncts to NSAIDs and colchicine but should not be used as first-line agents. For patients failing this approach and/or dependent on corticosteroids, the interleukin-1β antagonist anakinra is a promising option, and for the few patients who are refractory to medical therapy, surgical pericardiectomy can be considered. The long-term prognosis is good with <0.5% risk of constriction for patients with idiopathic acute pericarditis.

The role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the detection and monitoring of cardiotoxicity in patients with breast cancer after treatment: a comprehensive review

The use of chemotherapy medicines for breast cancer (BC) has been associated with an increased risk of cardiotoxicity. In recent years, there have been growing interests regarding the application of cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging, a safe and noninvasive modality, with the potential to identify subtle morphological and functional changes in the myocardium. In this investigation, we aimed to review the performance of various CMR methods in diagnosing cardiotoxicity in BC, induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy. For this purpose, we reviewed the literature available in PubMed, MEDLINE, Cochrane, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases. Our literature review showed that CMR is a valuable modality for identifying and predicting subclinical cardiotoxicity induced by chemotherapy. The novel T1, T2, and extracellular volume mapping techniques may provide critical information about cardiotoxicity, in addition to other CMR features such as functional and structural changes. However, further research is needed to verify the exact role of these methods in identifying cardiotoxicity and patient management. Since multiple studies have reported the improvement of left ventricular performance following the termination of chemotherapy regimens, CMR remains an essential imaging tool for the prediction of cardiotoxicity and, consequently, decreases the mortality rate of BC due to heart failure.

Role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in cardio-oncology

Advances in cancer therapy have led to significantly longer cancer-free survival times over the last 40 years. Improved survivorship coupled with increasing recognition of an expanding range of adverse cardiovascular effects of many established and novel cancer therapies has highlighted the impact of cardiovascular disease in this population. This has led to the emergence of dedicated cardio-oncology services that can provide pre-treatment risk stratification, surveillance, diagnosis, and monitoring of cardiotoxicity during cancer therapies, and late effects screening following completion of treatment. Cardiovascular imaging and the development of imaging biomarkers that can accurately and reliably detect pre-clinical disease and enhance our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of cancer treatment-related cardiotoxicity are becoming increasingly important. Multi-parametric cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is able to assess cardiac structure, function, and provide myocardial tissue characterization, and hence can be used to address a variety of important clinical questions in the emerging field of cardio-oncology. In this review, we discuss the current and potential future applications of CMR in the investigation and management of cancer patients.

Multimodality imaging in pericardial diseases

With a rapidly growing spectrum, non-specific symptoms and overlapping etiologies, pericardial diseases can represent a real diagnostic challenge. Consequently, multimodality imaging has taken a front seat in the diagnosis and management of these conditions. Cardiac CT offers an excellent anatomical characterization of pericardial thickening, fat stranding and/or presence of calcifications. and is also the preferred modality to assess extra-cardiac structures. Active pericardial inflammation, edema and fibrosis comprise pericardial characterization using CMR and allows for a precise diagnosis, disease staging and patient specific tailoring of therapies. PET scan still occupies a very modest role in the evaluation of pericardial diseases, but might help discriminating malignant pericardial effusion and extra-pulmonary tuberculous. More than ever, clinicians need to master how these modalities complement each other while avoiding unnecessary cost and to translate this knowledge into a more customized patient's care approach. The aim of this review is to recognize the role of multimodality imaging in the investigation of various pericardial diseases, assess how these modalities can impact the clinical course and treatment of these affections and finally elucidate their role in the patient's prognostication.

Epicardial fat and coronary artery disease: Role of cardiac imaging

Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) represents the fat depot located between the myocardium and the visceral pericardial layer. Far from being an inert tissue, EAT has been recognized as secreting a large amount of bioactive molecules called adipokines, which have numerous exocrine and paracrine effects. Recent evidence demonstrates that pericoronary adipose tissue (PCAT) - the EAT directly surrounding the coronary arteries - has a complex bidirectional interaction with the underlying vascular wall. While in normal conditions this mutual cross-talk helps maintain the homeostasis of the vascular wall, dysfunctional PCAT produces deleterious pro-inflammatory adipokines involved in atherogenesis. Importantly, PCAT inflammation has been associated with coronary artery disease (CAD) and major cardiovascular events. This review aims to provide an overview of the imaging techniques used to assess EAT, with a specific focus on cardiac computed tomography (CCT), which has become the key modality in this field. In contrast to echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), CCT is not only able to visualize and precisely quantify EAT, but also to assess the coronary arteries and the PCAT simultaneously. In recent years, several papers have shown the utility of using CCT-derived PCAT attenuation as a surrogate measure of coronary inflammation. This noninvasive imaging biomarker may potentially be used to monitor patient responses to new antinflammatory drugs for the treatment of CAD.

Role of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Heart Failure

This review describes the current role and potential future applications of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) for the management of heart failure (HF). CMR allows noninvasive morphologic and functional assessment, tissue characterization, blood flow, and perfusion evaluation. CMR overcomes echocardiography limitations (geometric assumptions, interobserver variability and poor acoustic window) and provides incremental information in relation to cause, prognosis, and treatment monitoring of patients with HF.

Multimodality cardiac imaging in the 21st century: evolution, advances and future opportunities for innovation

Cardiovascular imaging has significantly evolved since the turn of the century. Progress in the last two decades has been marked by advances in every modality used to image the heart, including echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance, cardiac CT and nuclear cardiology. There has also been a dramatic increase in hybrid and fusion modalities that leverage the unique capabilities of two imaging techniques simultaneously, as well as the incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning into the clinical workflow. These advances in non-invasive cardiac imaging have guided patient management and improved clinical outcomes. The technological developments of the past 20 years have also given rise to new imaging subspecialities and increased the demand for dedicated cardiac imagers who are cross-trained in multiple modalities. This state-of-the-art review summarizes the evolution of multimodality cardiac imaging in the 21st century and highlights opportunities for future innovation.

Assessment of Pericardial Disease with Cardiovascular MRI

Disorders of the pericardium are common and can result in significant morbidity and mortality. Advances in multimodality imaging have enhanced our ability to diagnose and stage pericardial disease and improve our understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease. Cardiovascular MRI (CMR) can be used to define pericardial anatomy, identify the presence and extent of active pericardial inflammation, and assess the hemodynamic consequences of pericardial disease. In this way, CMR can guide the judicial use of antiinflammatory and immune modulatory medications and help with timing of pericardiectomy. CMR can also be used to diagnose congenital disorders of the pericardium. Furthermore, CMR can be used to define pericardial masses and understand their malignant potential.

Update on MRI Techniques for Evaluation of Pericardial Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) provides the most comprehensive imaging assessment of pericardial disease, providing a three-dimensional assessment of the pericardium, functional assessment of its impact on cardiac contractility, and pericardial tissue/fluid characterization. This review presents an update on the utility of CMR imaging in a wide variety of pericardial diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

CMR provides both qualitative and quantitative assessment of the pericardium through various imaging techniques. It can also be used as a guide therapy and delineate response to treatment in pericarditis. CMR is also useful for the assessment of rare congenital disorders and in defining pericardial tumors and differentiating some non-invasively. CMR is a powerful non-invasive diagnostic tool for evaluating and characterizing pericardial diseases. Ongoing optimization of imaging techniques allows for differentiation of subtypes of disease as well as progression. Ongoing research demonstrates continued expanding role of CMR in both the diagnosis and management of pericardial and cardiovascular disease.

Pericarditis and Post-cardiac Injury Syndrome as a Sequelae of Acute Myocardial Infarction

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pericarditis secondary to acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is known to develop either immediately or after a latent period of few months. Due to varied presentation and timing, its diagnosis and treatment can be challenging. This article reviews underlying mechanisms and the role of cardiac imaging in investigating and managing this condition.

RECENT FINDINGS

Timely diagnosis of pericarditis after AMI is important to prevent potential progression to complicated pericarditis. Clinical suspicion warrants initial investigation with serum inflammatory levels, electrocardiogram, and echocardiography. When findings are inconclusive, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography can provide additional diagnostic information. Pericarditis after AMI is a treatable condition. Clinicians should maintain a high suspicion in this era of revascularization and develop a strategic plan for timely diagnosis and management.