Study protocol: the Adherence and Intensification of Medications (AIM) study--a cluster randomized controlled effectiveness study

Evaluating Documentation of Prescribing Training Experiences in Pharmacy Residency Programs

BACKGROUND

Clinical pharmacist specialists are ideal candidates to reduce healthcare costs and manage chronic disease states. However, it is unknown whether residency programs document prescribing training.

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to evaluate whether programs document prescriptive authority training in pharmacy residency programs.

METHODS

To evaluate whether California residency programs document prescribing training, we conducted a systematic review utilizing the key search terms to examine residency information resources: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP) residency program information and PubMed query. Primary outcome for documentation of prescriptive authority training was based on a defined search criterion.

RESULTS

Out of 128 residency programs, 110 met criteria for evaluation. A total of 47 residency programs (13 institutions) met criteria for prescribing training. Most programs did not define which specialty clinics offered prescribing training.

DISCUSSION

Based on search criterion, less than 50% met criteria for documentation of prescribing training in residency programs. With that said, there are limitations given a strict search criterion, so additional research is needed to further investigate whether prescribing trainings are offered. Given the limited amount of residency programs documenting prescribing training, it is essential to define standards and expand documentation of prescribing training.

Study protocol: Using peer support to aid in prevention and treatment in prediabetes (UPSTART)

BACKGROUND

There is an urgent need to develop and evaluate effective and scalable interventions to prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

In this randomized controlled pragmatic trial, 296 adults with prediabetes will be randomized to either a peer support arm or enhanced usual care. Participants in the peer support arm meet face-to-face initially with a trained peer coach who also is a patient at the same health center to receive information on locally available wellness and diabetes prevention programs, discuss behavioral goals related to diabetes prevention, and develop an action plan for the next week to meet their goals. Over six months, peer coaches call their assigned participants weekly to provide support for weekly action steps. In the final 6 months, coaches call participants at least once monthly. Participants in the enhanced usual care arm receive information on local resources and periodic updates on available diabetes prevention programs and resources. Changes in A1c, weight, waist circumference and other patient-centered outcomes and mediators and moderators of intervention effects will be assessed.

RESULTS

At least 296 participants and approximately 75 peer supporters will be enrolled.

DISCUSSION

Despite evidence that healthy lifestyle interventions can improve health behaviors and reduce risk for T2DM, engagement in recommended behavior change is low. This is especially true among racial and ethnic minority and low-income adults. Regular outreach and ongoing support from a peer coach may help participants to initiate and sustain healthy behavior changes to reduce their risk of diabetes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The ClinicalTrials.gov registration number is NCT03689530.

Primary care provider adherence to an alert for intensification of diabetes blood pressure medications before and after the addition of a "chart closure" hard stop

Objective

To evaluate provider responses to a narrowly targeted "Best Practice Advisory" (BPA) alert for the intensification of blood pressure medications for persons with diabetes before and after implementation of a "chart closure" hard stop, which is non-interruptive but demands an action or dismissal before the chart can be closed.

Materials and Methods

We designed a BPA that fired alerts within an electronic health record (EHR) system during outpatient encounters for patients with diabetes when they had elevated blood pressures and were not on angiotensin receptor blocking medications. The BPA alerts were implemented in eight primary care practices within UCLA Health. We compared data on provider responses to the alerts before and after implementing a "chart closure" hard stop, and we conducted chart reviews to adjudicate each alert's appropriateness.

Results

Providers responded to alerts more often after the "chart closure" hard stop was implemented (P < .001). Among 284 alert firings over 16 months, we judged 107 (37.7%) to be clinically unnecessary or inappropriate based on chart review. Among the remainder, which represent clear opportunities for treatment, providers ordered the indicated medication more often (41% vs 75%) after the "chart closure" hard stop was implemented (P = .001).

Discussion

The BPA alerts for diabetes and blood pressure control achieved relatively high specificity. The "chart closure" hard stop improved provider attention to the alerts and was effective at getting patients treated when they needed it.

Conclusion

Targeting specific omitted medication classes can produce relatively specific alerts that may reduce alert fatigue, and using a "chart closure" hard stop may prompt providers to take action without excessively disrupting their workflow.

No difference in medication regimes and dosing in study participants with and without blood pressure control: longitudinal data of the population-based Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study

BACKGROUND

To achieve blood pressure (BP) control adequate dosing of first-line antihypertensive medications is recommended in addition to life-style changes. Given observations that dosing of antihypertensive agents is frequently insufficient, we compared the changes of BP control rates and antihypertensive drug regimens in a prospective German population using a new strategy to analyze medication dosing.

METHODS

This analysis is based on data of the baseline (2000-2003) and the first follow-up examination (2005-2008) of the population-based Heinz Nixdorf Recall study. Participants with hypertension at baseline (BP ≥140/90 mmHg or at least one antihypertensive agent) who participated in both examinations were included.

RESULTS

Of the 4157 participants, 2289 (55.1%) had hypertension at baseline. The prevalence of participants on antihypertensive agents was 60.3% at baseline and increased to 75.1% at follow-up. The mean number of antihypertensive agents was 2 [±1 SD (standard deviation)] initially and at follow-up. The prevalence of medication-controlled BP did not improve over time (baseline: 54.5%, follow-up: 56.5%). When stratifying by medication-controlled BP, the medication dosing rate slightly increased over time without differences between groups [controlled versus uncontrolled BP: 40.9 versus 46.2% (baseline); 50.1 versus 51.9% (follow-up)].

CONCLUSION

Although the prevalence of antihypertensive medication use increased in the study period, the BP control rate did not. In contrast to clinical reasoning, participants with uncontrolled BP did neither receive more agents nor higher dosing despite outcome-relevant hypertension. Our approach to analyze medication dosing suggests a potential to improve cardiovascular outcomes by increasing dosages of antihypertensive agents.

Testing a behavioral intervention to improve adherence to adjuvant endocrine therapy (AET)

Adjuvant endocrine therapy (AET) is used to prevent recurrence and reduce mortality for women with hormone receptor positive breast cancer. Poor adherence to AET is a significant problem and contributes to increased medical costs and mortality. A variety of problematic symptoms associated with AET are related to non-adherence and early discontinuation of treatment. The goal of this study is to test a novel, telephone-based coping skills training that teaches patients adherence skills and techniques for coping with problematic symptoms (CST-AET). Adherence to AET will be assessed in real-time for 18 months using wireless smart pill bottles. Symptom interference (i.e., pain, vasomotor symptoms, sleep problems, vaginal dryness) and cost-effectiveness of the intervention protocol will be examined as secondary outcomes. Participants (N = 400) will be recruited from a tertiary care medical center or community clinics in medically underserved or rural areas. Participants will be randomized to receive CST-AET or a general health education intervention (comparison condition). CST-AET includes ten nurse-delivered calls delivered over 6 months. CST-AET provides systematic training in coping skills for managing symptoms that interfere with adherence. Interactive voice messaging provides reinforcement for skills use and adherence that is tailored based on real-time adherence data from the wireless smart pill bottles. Given the high rates of non-adherence and recent recommendations that women remain on AET for 10 years, we describe a timely trial. If effective, the CST-AET protocol may not only reduce the burden of AET use but also lead to cost-effective changes in clinical care and improve breast cancer outcomes. Trials registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02707471, registered 3/3/2016.

From enforcement to advocacy - Developing a Foucauldian perspective of pharmacists' reflections on interactions with complex patients

BACKGROUND

Pharmacists are extending their engagement in health care beyond the supply and monitoring of medicines. Extended roles for pharmacists propose participation in health promotion, disease monitoring and other health surveillance activities, involving them more closely in the lives of patients.

OBJECTIVES

To explore pharmacists' written reflections on patient-centred practice after interactions with people who experience complexity and difficulties to participate in their health care, using a Foucauldian approach.

METHODS

For this qualitative study, pharmacists enrolled in a postgraduate program first watched a video introducing them to the concept of complexity and conflicting patient priorities in health care. They then interacted with patients and reflected on these encounters, their understanding and practice of patient-centeredness. The reflective texts were thematically analysed, using the constant comparison method. Foucault's method of problematisation was used to construct and interpret themes.

RESULTS

Sixty-six pharmacists provided reflective accounts of their patient interaction. Main themes showed how pharmacists emphasised adherence to prescribed medicines, disease monitoring and other desirable health behaviours over tailoring advice to patients' priorities. The Foucauldian analysis elucidated how they prioritised supporting individual patient responsibility over addressing complexity in medication regimens and prescribed health care, risking normalisation of an enforcing role. Pharmacists acknowledged a discrepancy in their patient-centred practice when taking responsibility for patients' medication taking behaviour while encouraging the adoption of certain disciplines to achieve compliance. When pharmacists respected patients' agency and tailored advice and professional support to the needs, wishes and capacities of patients, they developed opportunities for advocacy via increased patient-centeredness.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacists' discursive practices as described in their reflections raise questions of how they employ their sociological and professional roles in negotiating the relatively best outcomes for patients. Pharmacists increasing their awareness of how they conduct themselves may enhance their patient-centeredness when extending participation in disease monitoring and surveillance.

Developing a framework for a novel multi-disciplinary, multi-agency intervention(s), to improve medication management in community-dwelling older people on complex medication regimens (MEMORABLE)--a realist synthesis

BACKGROUND

Medication-related adverse events have been estimated to be responsible for 5700 deaths and cost the UK £750 million annually. This burden falls disproportionately on older people. Outcomes from interventions to optimise medication management are caused by multiple context-sensitive mechanisms. The MEdication Management in Older people: REalist Approaches BAsed on Literature and Evaluation (MEMORABLE) project uses realist synthesis to understand how, why, for whom and in what context interventions, to improve medication management in older people on complex medication regimes residing in the community, work.

METHOD

This realist synthesis uses secondary data and primary data from interviews to develop the programme theory. A realist logic of analysis will synthesise data both within and across the two data sources to inform the design of a complex intervention(s) to help improve medication management in older people. 1. Literature review The review (using realist synthesis) contains five stages to develop an initial programme theory to understand why processes are more or less successful and under which situations: focussing of the research question; developing the initial programme theory; developing the search strategy; selection and appraisal based on relevance and rigour; and data analysis/synthesis to develop and refine the programme theory and context, intervention and mechanism configurations. 2. Realist interviews Realist interviews will explore and refine our understanding of the programme theory developed from the realist synthesis. Up to 30 older people and their informal carers (15 older people with multi-morbidity, 10 informal carers and 5 older people with dementia), and 20 care staff will be interviewed. 3. Developing framework for the intervention(s) Data from the realist synthesis and interviews will be used to refine the programme theory for the intervention(s) to identify: the mechanisms that need to be 'triggered', and the contexts related to these mechanisms. Intervention strategies that change the contexts so the mechanisms are triggered to produce desired outcomes will be developed. Feedback on these strategies will be obtained.

DISCUSSION

This realist synthesis aims to develop a framework (underpinned by our programme theory) for a novel multi-disciplinary, multi-agency intervention(s), to improve medication management in community-dwelling older people on complex medication regimens.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42016043506.

The Shared Health Appointments and Reciprocal Enhanced Support (SHARES) study: study protocol for a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Diabetes shared medical appointments (SMAs) and reciprocal peer support programs have been found in efficacy trials to help adults with diabetes improve their self-management and achieve short-term gains in clinical and patient-centered outcomes. In order to translate this evidence to system-level interventions, there is a need for large-scale, pragmatic trials that examine the effectiveness, implementation, and costs of SMAs and reciprocal peer support across diverse settings.

METHODS

The Shared Health Appointments and Reciprocal Enhanced Support (SHARES) study is a multisite, cluster randomized trial that is evaluating the effectiveness and implementation of SMAs with and without an additional reciprocal Peer-to-Peer (P2P) support program, when compared to usual care. The P2P program comprises periodic peer support group sessions and telephone contact between SMA participant pairs to promote more effective diabetes self-management. We will examine outcomes across three different treatment groups: (1) SMAs, (2) SMAs plus P2P, and (3) usual care. We will collect and analyze data over a 2.5-year implementation period at five geographically diverse Veterans Affairs (VA) health systems. The primary outcome is the relative change in hemoglobin A1c over time. Secondary outcomes are changes in systolic blood pressure, antihypertensive medication use, statin use, and insulin initiation over the study period. The unit of analysis is the individual, adjusted by the individual's SMA group (the cluster). We will use mixed methods to rigorously evaluate processes and costs of implementing these programs in each of the clinic settings.

DISCUSSION

We hypothesize that patients will experience improved outcomes immediately following participation in SMAs and that augmenting SMAs with reciprocal peer support will help to maintain these gains over time. The results of this study will be among the first to examine the effects of diabetes SMAs alone and in conjunction with P2P in a range of real-life clinical settings. In addition, the study will provide important information on contextual factors associated with successful program implementation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, ID: NCT02132676 . Registered on 21 August 2013.

A coordinated PCP-Cardiologist Telemedicine Model (PCTM) in China's community hypertension care: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and its control rate has remained low worldwide. Studies have found that telemonitoring blood pressure (BP) helped control hypertension in randomized controlled trials. However, little is known about its effect in a structured primary care model in which primary care physicians (PCPs) are partnering with cardiology specialists in electronic healthcare data sharing and medical interventions. This study aims to identify the effects of a coordinated PCP-cardiologist model that applies telemedicine tools to facilitate community hypertension control in China.

METHODS/DESIGN

Patients with hypertension receiving care at four community healthcare centers that are academically affiliated to Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University are eligible if they have had uncontrolled BP in the previous 3 months and access to mobile Internet. Study subjects are randomly assigned to three interventional groups: (1) usual care; (2) home-based BP telemonitor with embedded Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) module and unlimited data plan, an app to access personal healthcare record and receive personalized lifestyle coaching contents, and proficiency training of their use; or (3) this plus coordinated PCP-cardiologist care in which PCPs and cardiologists share data via a secure CareLinker website to determine interventional approaches. The primary outcome is mean change in systolic blood pressure over a 12-month period. Secondary outcomes are changes of diastolic blood pressure, HbA1C, blood lipids, and medication adherence measured by the eight-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale.

DISCUSSION

This study will determine whether a coordinated PCP-Cardiologist Telemedicine Model that incorporates the latest telemedicine technologies will improve hypertension care. Success of the model would help streamline the present community healthcare processes and impact a greater number of patients with uncontrolled hypertension.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02919033 . Registered on 23 September 2016.

Development and application of the RE-AIM QuEST mixed methods framework for program evaluation

To increase the likelihood of successful implementation of interventions and promote dissemination across real-world settings, it is essential to evaluate outcomes related to dimensions other than Effectiveness alone. Glasgow and colleagues' RE-AIM framework specifies four additional types of outcomes that are important to decision-makers: Reach, Adoption, Implementation (including cost), and Maintenance. To further strengthen RE-AIM, we propose integrating qualitative assessments in an expanded framework: RE-AIM Qualitative Evaluation for Systematic Translation (RE-AIM QuEST), a mixed methods framework. RE-AIM QuEST guides formative evaluation to identify real-time implementation barriers and explain how implementation context may influence translation to additional settings.

RE-AIM QuEST was used to evaluate a pharmacist-led hypertension management intervention at 3 VA facilities in 2008–2009. We systematically reviewed each of the five RE-AIM dimensions and created open-ended companion questions to quantitative measures and identified qualitative and quantitative data sources, measures, and analyses.

To illustrate use of the RE-AIM QuEST framework, we provide examples of real-time, coordinated use of quantitative process measures and qualitative methods to identify site-specific issues, and retrospective use of these data sources and analyses to understand variation across sites and explain outcomes. For example, in the Reach dimension, we conducted real-time measurement of enrollment across sites and used qualitative data to better understand and address barriers at a low-enrollment site.

The RE-AIM QuEST framework may be a useful tool for improving interventions in real-time, for understanding retrospectively why an intervention did or did not work, and for enhancing its sustainability and translation to other settings.

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The RE-AIM QuEST framework provides qualitative questions in each RE-AIM dimension.

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RE-AIM QuEST allows investigators to improve implementation during the intervention.

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It expands retrospective evaluation to fully review why intervention worked or failed.

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It expands Maintenance by explicating whether or not/how intervention was maintained.

Can We Identify Minority Patients at Risk of Nonadherence to Antiplatelet Medication at the Time of Coronary Stent Placement?

BACKGROUND

Lack of medication adherence is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, particularly among minorities. We aim to identify predictors of nonadherence to antiplatelet medications at the time of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent among African American and Hispanic patients.

METHODS

We used data collected for a randomized clinical trial that recruited 452 minority patients from a large US health insurance organization in 2010 post-PCI to compare telephone-based motivational interviewing by trained nurses with an educational video. The primary outcome was 12-month adherence to antiplatelet medications measured by the claims-based medication possession ratio (MPR). Adequate adherence was defined as an MPR of 0.80 or higher.

RESULTS

More than half of the sample (age, 69.52 ± 8.8 years) was male (57%) and Hispanic (57%). Most (78%) had a median income below $30 000 and 22% completed high school or higher. Univariate analyses revealed that symptoms of depression (<.01) and not having a spouse (P = .03) were associated with inadequate adherence. In multivariate analysis, baseline self-reported adherence (1.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05-1.89), depressive symptoms (0.49; 95% CI, 0.7-0.90), comorbidity (0.89; 95% CI, 0.80-0.98), and telephone-based motivational interviewing by trained nurses (3.5; 95% CI, 1.9-2.70) were associated with adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

Having multiple comorbidities, depression, suboptimal adherence to medications, and low English proficiency at the time of PCI increase the risk of poor 12-month adherence to antiplatelets among minorities. Identifying these risk factors can guide PCI therapy and the use of evidence-based strategies to improve long-term adherence.

Hypertension Management in Primary Care

BACKGROUND

To improve hypertension control, this cluster randomized trial evaluated the effectiveness of physician manager education about hypertension management.

METHODS

After randomization at practice level, primary care physicians of the intervention arm, whose practices collaborated with a university department, participated in a three-session education on evidence-based hypertensiology and practice implementation strategies. The primary outcome was blood pressure (BP) control (ambulatory blood pressure [ABP] <130/80 mmHg) after 5 months. Secondary outcomes were changes in BP and practice routines regarding hypertension management. Following an intention-to-treat approach, data analyses included crude and adjusted generalized mixed models and sensitivity analyses. These took into account sex, age, ≥ hypertension-related disease and resistant hypertension (RH).

RESULTS

The analysis included 103 of 169 patients from 22 practices. Overall, BP decrease was -8.2 systolic and -4.1 mmHg diastolic. The intervention had no effect on BP control (odds ratio 0.84 [95% CI 0.29-2.43]) and BP changes (interventional effect: systolic -2.48 mmHg [95% CI -7.24 to 2.29], diastolic -0.25 mmHg [95% CI 3.31 to 2.82]). Sensitivity analysis indicated effect modification in patients with RH. Intervention practices requested educational input on difficult cases, and newly implemented 3 practice strategies (14.5±2.6 versus 11.4±2.2; P=0.005).

CONCLUSION

After the short follow-up of 5 months, the intervention had no impact on BP control but improved the use of practice strategies.

Prescription medication burden in patients with newly diagnosed diabetes: a SUrveillance, PREvention, and ManagEment of Diabetes Mellitus (SUPREME-DM) study

OBJECTIVE

To understand the burden of medication use for patients with newly diagnosed diabetes both before and after diabetes diagnosis and to identify subpopulations of patients with newly diagnosed diabetes who face a relatively high drug burden.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

11 integrated health systems in the United States.

PARTICIPANTS

196,654 insured adults 20 years of age or older newly diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes from January 2005 through December 2009.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Number of unique therapeutic classes of drugs dispensed in the 12 months before and 12 months after diagnosis of diabetes in five categories: overall, antihypertensive agents, antihyperlipidemic agents, mental health agents, and antihyperglycemic agents (in the postdiagnosis period only).

RESULTS

The mean number of drug classes used by newly diagnosed patients with diabetes is high before diagnosis (5.0) and increases significantly afterward (6.6). Of this increase, 81% is due to antihyperglycemic initiation and increased use of medications to control hypertension and lipid levels. Multivariate analyses showed that overall drug burden after diabetes diagnosis was higher in women, older, white, and obese patients, as well as among those with higher glycosylated hemoglobin concentrations and comorbidity levels (significant for all comparisons). The overall number of drug classes used by newly diagnosed patients with diabetes after diagnosis decreased slightly but significantly between 2005 and 2009.

CONCLUSION

Patients newly diagnosed with diabetes face a substantially increased burden of medications used to control diabetes and other comorbidities. This study shows an increased focus on cardiovascular disease risk factor control after diagnosis of diabetes. However, total drug burden may be slightly decreasing over time.

Reach and Validity of an Objective Medication Adherence Measure Among Safety Net Health Plan Members with Diabetes: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

With the expansion of Medicaid and low-cost health insurance plans among diverse patient populations, objective measures of medication adherence using pharmacy claims could advance clinical care and translational research for safety net care. However, safety net patients may experience fluctuating prescription drug coverage, affecting the performance of adherence measures.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the performance of continuous medication gap (CMG) for diverse, low-income managed care members with diabetes.

METHODS

We conducted this cross-sectional analysis using administrative and clinical data for 680 members eligible for a self-management support trial at a nonprofit, government-sponsored managed care plan. We applied CMG methodology to cardiometabolic medication claims for English- , Cantonese- , or Spanish-speaking members with diabetes. We examined inclusiveness (the proportion with calculable CMG) and selectivity (sociodemographic and medical differences from members without CMG). For validity, we examined unadjusted associations of suboptimal adherence (CMG >  20%) with suboptimal cardiometabolic control.

RESULTS

429 members (63%) had calculable CMG. Compared with members without CMG, members with CMG were younger, more likely employed, and had poorer glycemic control but had better blood pressure and lipid control. Suboptimal adherence occurred more frequently among members with poor cardiometabolic control than among members with optimal control (28% vs. 12%, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

CMG demonstrated acceptable inclusiveness and validity in a diverse, low-income safety net population, comparable with its performance in studies among other insured populations. CMG may provide a useful tool to measure adherence among increasingly diverse Medicaid populations, complemented by other strategies to reach those not captured by CMG.

Can phone-based motivational interviewing improve medication adherence to antiplatelet medications after a coronary stent among racial minorities? A randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Minorities have lower adherence to cardiovascular medications and have worst cardiovascular outcomes post coronary stent placement

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to compare the efficacy of phone-delivered Motivational Interviewing (MINT) to an educational video at improving adherence to antiplatelet medications among insured minorities.

DESIGN

This was a randomized study.

PARTICIPANTS

We identified minorities with a recently placed coronary stent from an administrative data set by using a previously validated algorithm.

INTERVENTIONS

MINT subjects received quarterly phone calls and the DVD group received a one-time mailed video.

MAIN MEASURES

Outcome variables were collected at baseline and at 12-month post-stent, using surveys and administrative data. The primary outcome was antiplatelet (clopidogrel and prasugrel) adherence measured by Medication Possession Ratio (MPR) and self- reported adherence (Morisky score). We also measured appropriate adherence defined as an MPR ≥ 0.80.

KEY RESULTS

We recruited 452 minority subjects with a new coronary stent (44 % Hispanics and 56 % Black). The patients had a mean age of 69.5 ± 8.8, 58 % were males, 78 % had an income lower than $30,000 per year and only 22 % had achieved high school education or higher. The MPR for antiplatelet medications was 0.77 for the MINT group compared to 0.70 for the DVD group (p < 0.05). The percentage of subjects with adequate adherence to their antiplatelet medication was 64 % in the MINT group and 50 % in the DVD group (p < 0.01). Self-reported adherence at 12 months was higher in the MINT group compared to the DVD group (p < 0.01). Results were similar among drug-eluting stent (DES) recipients.

CONCLUSIONS

Among racial minorities, a phone-based motivational interview is effective at improving adherence to antiplatelet medications post coronary stent placement. Phone-based MINT seems to be a promising and cost-effective strategy to modify risk behaviors among minority populations at high cardiovascular risk.

Hypertension management in primary care: study protocol for a cluster randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Studies worldwide show insufficient blood pressure control rates, and effective management of hypertension remains a challenge in general practice. Although structured forms of care improved blood pressure in randomized controlled trials, little is known about their effects under routine primary care. This cluster randomized trial (CRT) evaluates the effects of a modern interactive medical education series for general practitioners on hypertension management, including practice redesign strategies.

METHODS/DESIGN

For this CRT, 24 primary care academic teaching practices of the University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany, are randomized into two study arms. With the objective of improving hypertension control, general practitioners of the intervention group participate in a three-session medical education program on structured hypertension management. The program aims at changing physician awareness and practice design. Various practice tools are provided: for example, checklists on valid blood pressure readings, medication selection, detection of secondary hypertension, and patient education. General practitioners of both study groups include hypertensive patients with and without hypertension-related diseases such as angiographically proven coronary disease, and peripheral or cerebral vascular disease. Blood pressure is measured by 24-hour readings. Analyses will focus on differences in blood pressure control and changes of practice management between intervention and control group.

DISCUSSION

The study will determine the effectiveness of our practice redesign intervention on hypertension control. The intervention addresses general practitioners and practice assistants, while aiming at benefits on the patient level. Therefore, the cluster design is used to evaluate the effects.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

DRKS00006315 (date of registration: 14 July 2014).

Empowering pharmacists in asthma management through interactive SMS (EmPhAsIS): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Medication regimens for asthma are particularly vulnerable to adherence problems because of the requirement for long-term use and periods of symptom remission experienced by patients. Pharmacists are suited to impact medication adherence given their training, skills, and frequent contact with patients. The Empowering pharmacists in asthma management through interactive SMS (EmPhAsIS) trial involves an intervention leveraging mobile health (mHealth) technology to support community pharmacy practice with the hypothesis of improved medication adherence in asthma.

METHODS/DESIGN

This study is a pragmatic pharmacy-based, cluster, randomized controlled trial with 12 months of intervention delivery and follow-up. Pharmacies (the clusters) will be randomized at a 1:1 ratio to provide intervention or usual care. The EmPhAsIS intervention consists of patient asthma education, short message service (SMS)-based monthly assessment of adherence, and follow-up of non-adherent individuals by community pharmacists. There are no inclusion or exclusion criteria for pharmacies. Patients are eligible if they: are 14 years of age or older, fill a prescription for inhaled corticosteroid (either monotherapy or in a combination inhaler with long-acting beta-agonists), have been diagnosed with asthma, possess a mobile phone with SMS capabilities, and have no communication difficulties such as inability to communicate in English, or significant impairment in vision, hearing, or speech. The primary outcome is adherence to inhaled corticosteroids ascertained by the medication possession ratio, the ratio of the days of medication supplied to days in a given time interval. This study will also evaluate secondary outcomes including: asthma control, asthma-related quality of life, asthma-related hospital admissions, and use of reliever medications during the follow-up period. A nested economic evaluation using a probabilistic decision-analytic model will be used to perform a cost-effectiveness analysis from the societal perspective of the intervention compared with usual care over a 10-year time horizon.

DISCUSSION

Considering the prevalence of asthma, the extent of the non-adherence problem in this disease, and the availability of effective treatments, there is a tremendous potential to reduce the burden of asthma through improving adherence. This is the first study of an intervention based on mobile communication technology involving community pharmacists in asthma management.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02170883; date of registration: 19 June 2014.

Sample size determination for three-level randomized clinical trials with randomization at the first or second level

Clinical trials in the context of comparative effectiveness research (CER) are often conducted to evaluate health outcomes under real-world conditions and standard health care settings. In such settings, three-level hierarchical study designs are increasingly common. For example, patients may be nested within treating physicians, who in turn are nested within an urgent care center or hospital. While many trials randomize the third-level units (e.g., centers) to intervention, in some cases randomization may occur at lower levels of the hierarchy, such as patients or physicians. In this article, we present and verify explicit closed-form sample size and power formulas for three-level designs assuming randomization is at the first or second level. The formulas are based on maximum likelihood estimates from mixed-effect linear models and verified by simulation studies. Results indicate that even with smaller sample sizes, theoretical power derived with known variances is nearly identical to empirically estimated power for the more realistic setting when variances are unknown. In addition, we show that randomization at the second or first level of the hierarchy provides an increasingly statistically efficient alternative to third-level randomization. Power to detect a treatment effect under second-level randomization approaches that of patient-level randomization when there are few patients within each randomized second-level cluster and, most importantly, when the correlation attributable to second-level variation is a small proportion of the overall correlation between patient outcomes.

Factors associated with persistent poorly controlled diabetes mellitus: clues to improving management in patients with resistant poor control

OBJECTIVES

Patients with persistent poorly controlled diabetes mellitus (PPDM), defined as an uninterrupted hemoglobin A1c >8.0% for ≥1 year despite standard care, are at high risk for complications. Additional research to define patient factors associated with PPDM could suggest barriers to improvement in this group and inform the development of targeted strategies to address these patients' resistant diabetes.

METHODS

We analyzed patients with type 2 diabetes from a multi-site randomized trial. We characterized patients with PPDM relative to other patients using detailed survey data and multivariable modeling.

RESULTS

Of 963 patients, 118 (12%) had PPDM, 265 (28%) were intermittently poorly controlled, and 580 (60%) were well-controlled. Patients with PPDM had younger age, earlier diabetes diagnosis, insulin use, higher antihypertensive burden, higher low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and lower statin use relative to well-controlled patients. Among patients with objective adherence data (Veterans Affairs patients), a larger oral diabetes medication refill gap was associated with PPDM.

DISCUSSION

Strategies are needed to target-specific barriers to improvement among patients whose diabetes is resistant to standard diabetes care. Our data suggest that strategies for targeting PPDM should accommodate younger patients' lifestyles, include medication management for insulin titration and comorbid disease conditions, and address barriers to self-management adherence.

Randomized trial of telephone outreach to improve medication adherence and metabolic control in adults with diabetes

OBJECTIVE

Medication nonadherence is a major obstacle to better control of glucose, blood pressure (BP), and LDL cholesterol in adults with diabetes. Inexpensive effective strategies to increase medication adherence are needed.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In a pragmatic randomized trial, we randomly assigned 2,378 adults with diabetes mellitus who had recently been prescribed a new class of medication for treating elevated levels of glycated hemoglobin (A1C) ≥8% (64 mmol/mol), BP ≥140/90 mmHg, or LDL cholesterol ≥100 mg/dL, to receive 1) one scripted telephone call from a diabetes educator or clinical pharmacist to identify and address nonadherence to the new medication or 2) usual care. Hierarchical linear and logistic regression models were used to assess the impact on 1) the first medication fill within 60 days of the prescription; 2) two or more medication fills within 180 days of the prescription; and 3) clinically significant improvement in levels of A1C, BP, or LDL cholesterol.

RESULTS

Of the 2,378 subjects, 89.3% in the intervention group and 87.4% in the usual-care group had sufficient data to analyze study outcomes. In intent-to-treat analyses, intervention was not associated with significant improvement in primary adherence, medication persistence, or intermediate outcomes of care. Results were similar across subgroups of patients defined by age, sex, race/ethnicity, and study site, and when limiting the analysis to those who completed the intended intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

This low-intensity intervention did not significantly improve medication adherence or control of glucose, BP, or LDL cholesterol. Wide use of this strategy does not appear to be warranted; alternative approaches to identify and improve medication adherence and persistence are needed.

Behavioral interventions to improve hypertension control in the Veterans Affairs healthcare system

Hypertension is a common and costly disease among US veterans. The Veterans Affairs (VA) healthcare system is the largest integrated healthcare provider in the United States and reviewing hypertension interventions developed in the VA may inform interventions delivered in other integrated healthcare systems. This review describes behavioral interventions to improve hypertension control that have been conducted in the VA since 1970. The authors identified 27 articles representing 15 behavioral interventional trials. Studies were heterogeneous across patients, providers, interventionist, and intervention components. The VA bridges services related to diagnosis, treatment, medication management, and behavioral counseling in a unified approach that supports collaboration and provides infrastructure for hypertension management.

A systematic literature review of methodologies used to assess medication adherence in patients with diabetes

OBJECTIVE

Adhering to prescribed medication is often a problem for patients with diabetes yet there is no consensus on how best to measure adherence in this patient population. This systematic literature review critically reviewed and summarized the methods used to measure medication adherence in patients with diabetes (on oral hypoglycemic agents [OHAs] and/or insulin) in original research published between 2007-2013.

STUDY DESIGN

Literature review.

METHODS

A systematic search for methods to assess medication adherence in patients with type I or type II diabetes was conducted using PubMed, EMBASE, PsychInfo, and Cochrane databases. Two researchers independently screened abstracts for initial eligibility and then applied the inclusion/exclusion criteria to the relevant full-text articles.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine articles met the criteria for inclusion. Subjective assessment (observer-reported and patient-reported), pill counts, Medication Event Monitoring System (MEMS), cell-phone real-time assessment, and logbooks were used in prospective studies. In pharmacy claims databases, medication possession ratios (MPRs), or some derivation thereof, were utilized. Each method has strengths and weaknesses, but few approaches specifically addressed issues unique to assessing insulin adherence. Three novel approaches (using cell-phone real-time assessment, computerized logbooks, and a questionnaire about different dosing irregularities) provided insight on timing and dosing issues that could be useful for highlighting interventions to improve insulin adherence.

CONCLUSION

No gold standard exists for measuring medication adherence in patients with diabetes. The plethora of adherence methods precludes the comparison of adherence rates across studies. Greater consistency is therefore needed in adherence measurement, including question content, recall period, and response options for self-report measures. Novel methods for understanding adherence to variable-dosed insulin require further research. Researchers should select a methodology that best fits their research question, study design, patient population and resources.

Characteristics of diabetic patients associated with achieving and maintaining blood pressure targets in the Adherence and Intensification of Medications program

OBJECTIVES

To determine patient characteristics associated with achieving and sustaining blood pressure (BP) targets in the Adherence and Intensification of Medications program, a program led by pharmacists trained in motivational interviewing and authorized to make BP medication changes.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of patients with diabetes and persistent hypertension in Kaiser Permanente and the Department of Veterans Affairs. Using two-level logistic regression, baseline survey data from 458 program participants were examined to determine patient characteristics associated with (1) discharge from the program with a target BP (short-term success) and (2) maintenance of the target BP over a nine-month period (long-term success).

RESULTS

In multivariable analyses, patients who screened positive for depression or had a higher baseline systolic BP were less likely to achieve short-term success (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.42 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.19-0.93], p = 0.03; AOR 0.94 [0.91-0.97], p < 0.01; respectively). Patients who reported at baseline one or more barriers to medication adherence were less likely to achieve long-term success (AOR 0.50 [0.26-0.94], p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Although almost 90% of patients achieved short-term success, only 28% achieved long-term success. Baseline barriers to adherence were associated with lack of long-term success and could be the target of maintenance programs for patients who achieve short-term success.

Missing signposts on the roadmap to quality: a call to improve medication adherence indicators in data collection for population research

PURPOSE

Poor adherence to prescribed medicines is associated with increased rates of poor outcomes, including hospitalization, serious adverse events, and death, and is also associated with increased healthcare costs. However, current approaches to evaluation of medication adherence using real-world electronic health records (EHRs) or claims data may miss critical opportunities for data capture and fall short in modeling and representing the full complexity of the healthcare environment. We sought to explore a framework for understanding and improving data capture for medication adherence in a population-based intervention in four U.S. counties.

APPROACH

We posited that application of a data model and a process matrix when designing data collection for medication adherence would improve identification of variables and data accessibility, and could support future research on medication-taking behaviors. We then constructed a use case in which data related to medication adherence would be leveraged to support improved healthcare quality, clinical outcomes, and efficiency of healthcare delivery in a population-based intervention for persons with diabetes. Because EHRs in use at participating sites were deemed incapable of supplying the needed data, we applied a taxonomic approach to identify and define variables of interest. We then applied a process matrix methodology, in which we identified key research goals and chose optimal data domains and their respective data elements, to instantiate the resulting data model.

CONCLUSIONS

Combining a taxonomic approach with a process matrix methodology may afford significant benefits when designing data collection for clinical and population-based research in the arena of medication adherence. Such an approach can effectively depict complex real-world concepts and domains by "mapping" the relationships between disparate contributors to medication adherence and describing their relative contributions to the shared goals of improved healthcare quality, outcomes, and cost.

Most important outcomes research papers on hypertension

The following are highlights from the new series, Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes Topic Review. This series will summarize the most important manuscripts, as selected by the Editor, which have published in the Circulation portfolio. The objective of this new series is to provide our readership with a timely, comprehensive selection of important papers that are relevant to the quality and outcomes, as well as general cardiology audience. The studies included in this article represent the most significant research related to hypertension.

Generic medications and blood pressure control in diabetic hypertensive subjects: results from the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate temporal improvements in blood pressure (BP) control in subjects with diabetes and policy changes regarding generic antihypertensives.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In a cross-sectional study we used logistic regression models to investigate the temporal relationship between access to generic antihypertensive medications and BP control (<130/80 mmHg) in 5,375 subjects (mean age, 66 ± 9 years; 61% African American) with diabetes and hypertension (HTN) enrolled in the national Results from the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) cohort study between 2003 and 2007. At enrollment, BP was measured and medications in the home determined by medication label review by a trained professional. Generic antihypertensive medication status was ascertained from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

RESULTS

The percentage of subjects accessing generically available antihypertensive medications increased significantly from 66% in 2003 to 81% in 2007 (P < 0.0001), and the odds of achieving a BP <130/80 mmHg in 2007 was 66% higher (odds ratio 1.66 [95% CI 1.30-2.10]) than in 2003. Nevertheless, <50% of participants achieved this goal. African American race, male sex, limited income, and medication nonadherence were significant predictors of inadequate BP control. There was no significant relationship between access to generic antihypertensives and BP control when other demographic factors were included in the model (0.98 [0.96-1.00]).

CONCLUSIONS

Among African American and white subjects with HTN and diabetes, BP control remained inadequate relative to published guidelines, and racial disparities persisted. Although access to generic antihypertensives increased, this was not independently associated with improved BP control, suggesting that poor BP control is multifactorial.

Improving blood pressure control through a clinical pharmacist outreach program in patients with diabetes mellitus in 2 high-performing health systems: the adherence and intensification of medications cluster randomized, controlled pragmatic trial

BACKGROUND

Even in high-performing health systems, some patients with diabetes mellitus have poor blood pressure (BP) control because of poor medication adherence and lack of medication intensification. We examined whether the Adherence and Intensification of Medications intervention, a pharmacist-led intervention combining elements found in efficacy studies to lower BP, improved BP among patients with diabetes mellitus with persistent hypertension and poor refill adherence or insufficient medication intensification in 2 high-performing health systems.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We conducted a prospective, multisite cluster randomized pragmatic trial with randomization of 16 primary care teams at 5 medical centers (3 Veterans Affairs and 2 Kaiser Permanente) to the Adherence and Intensification of Medications intervention or usual care. The primary outcome was relative change in systolic BP (SBP), comparing 1797 intervention with 2303 control team patients, from 6 months preceding to 6 months after the 14-month intervention period. We examined shorter-term changes in SBP as a secondary outcome. The mean SBP decrease from 6 months before to 6 months after the intervention period was ≈9 mm Hg in both arms. Mean SBPs of eligible intervention patients were 2.4 mm Hg lower (95% CI: -3.4 to -1.5; P<0.001) immediately after the intervention than those achieved by control patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The Adherence and Intensification of Medications program more rapidly lowered SBPs among intervention patients, but usual-care patients achieved equally low SBP levels by 6 months after the intervention period. These findings show the importance of evaluating in different real-life clinical settings programs found in efficacy trials to be effective before urging their widespread adoption in all settings.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

URL: http://clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00495794.