Cytogenetic analysis in the neotropical fish Astyanax goyacensis Eigenmann, 1908 (Characidae, incertae sedis): karyotype description and occurrence of B microchromosomes

Comparative cytogenetics of microsatellite distribution in two tetra fishes Astyanax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Psalidodon scabripinnis (Jenyns, 1842)

Background

The main cytogenetic studies of the Characidae family comprise the genera Astyanax and Psalidodon involving the use of repetitive DNA probes. However, for the microsatellite classes, studies are still scarce and the function of these sequences in the genome of these individuals is still not understood. Thus, we aimed to analyze and compare the distribution of microsatellite sequences in the species Astyanax bimaculatus and Psalidodon scabripinnis.

Methods

We collected biopsies from the fins of A. bimaculatus and P. scabripinnis to perform cell culture, followed by chromosome extraction, and mapped the distribution of 14 microsatellites by FISH in both species.

Results and Discussion

The diploid number observed for both species was 2n = 50, with an acrocentric B microchromosome in A. bimaculatus and a metacentric B chromosome in P. scabripinnis. Regarding FISH, 11 probes hybridized in the karyotype of A. bimaculatus mainly in centromeric regions, and 13 probes hybridized in P. scabripinnis, mainly in telomeric regions, in addition to a large accumulation of microsatellite hybridization on its B chromosome.

Conclusion

Comparative FISH mapping of 14 microsatellite motifs revealed different patterns of distribution both in autosomes and supernumerary chromosomes of A. bimaculatus and P. scabripinnis, suggesting independent evolutionary processes in each of these species, representing excellent data on chromosome rearrangements and cytotaxonomy.

Long-term persistence of supernumerary B chromosomes in multiple species of Astyanax fish

BACKGROUND

Eukaryote genomes frequently harbor supernumerary B chromosomes in addition to the "standard" A chromosome set. B chromosomes are thought to arise as byproducts of genome rearrangements and have mostly been considered intraspecific oddities. However, their evolutionary transcendence beyond species level has remained untested.

RESULTS

Here we reveal that the large metacentric B chromosomes reported in several fish species of the genus Astyanax arose in a common ancestor at least 4 million years ago. We generated transcriptomes of A. scabripinnis and A. paranae 0B and 1B individuals and used these assemblies as a reference for mapping all gDNA and RNA libraries to quantify coverage differences between B-lacking and B-carrying genomes. We show that the B chromosomes of A. scabripinnis and A. paranae share 19 protein-coding genes, of which 14 and 11 were also present in the B chromosomes of A. bockmanni and A. fasciatus, respectively. Our search for B-specific single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified the presence of B-derived transcripts in B-carrying ovaries, 80% of which belonged to nobox, a gene involved in oogenesis regulation. Importantly, the B chromosome nobox paralog is expressed > 30× more than the A chromosome paralog. This indicates that the normal regulation of this gene is altered in B-carrying females, which could potentially facilitate B inheritance at higher rates than Mendelian law prediction.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results demonstrate the long-term survival of B chromosomes despite their lack of regular pairing and segregation during meiosis and that they can endure episodes of population divergence leading to species formation.

Dynamics of Replication and Nuclear Localization of the B Chromosome in Kidney Tissue Cells in Astyanax scabripinnis (Teleostei: Characidae)

B chromosomes are extra genomic compounds found in different taxonomic groups, including plants and animals. Obtaining patterns of resolutive chromosomal bands is necessary to understand the nuclear organization, variability and nature of B chromosome chromatin and possible transcriptional regions. In this study, we analyzed 35 Astyanax scabripinnis specimens sampled from Fazenda Lavrinha, a stream in the Paraíba do Sul river basin, Brazil. Through the incorporation of the thymidine analog 5'-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (5-BrdU) in vivo, it was possible to recognize the replicating regions of the B chromosome at the beginning of the S phase, differentially characterized in relationship to the regions of late replication. In this perspective, it is possible to suggest that the B chromosome of this species possesses a territory and the chromatin accessible for transcription, especially in the light (i.e., early replicating) bands (p1.1; p1.3; and p2.1 and q1.1, q1.3, q2.1, and q2.2). The late-replicating regions are corresponding to the blocks of constitutive heterochromatin. They show a preferential accumulation of satellite DNA As51. By the use of the fluorochrome chromomycin A3 (CMA3), it was possible to identify GC-rich chromosomal regions, corresponding to late-replicating parts of genome, confirming the revealed data by the replication banding and C-banding. In addition, the analysis by confocal microscopy in kidney cells indicates the location of a peripheral anchorage of this chromosome in the nuclear lamina, reinforcing the idea of downregulation of the associated regions.

Trends in Karyotype Evolution in Astyanax (Teleostei, Characiformes, Characidae): Insights From Molecular Data

The study of patterns and evolutionary processes in neotropical fish is not always an easy task due the wide distribution of major fish groups in large and extensive river basins. Thus, it is not always possible to detect or correlate possible effects of chromosome rearrangements in the evolution of biodiversity. In the Astyanax genus, chromosome data obtained since the 1970s have shown evidence of cryptic species, karyotypic plasticity, supernumerary chromosomes, triploidies, and minor chromosomal rearrangements. In the present work, we map and discuss the main chromosomal events compatible with the molecular evolution of the genus Astyanax (Characiformes, Characidae) using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in the search for major chromosome evolutionary trends within this taxon.

Variability and evolutionary implications of repetitive DNA dynamics in genome of Astyanax scabripinnis (Teleostei, Characidae)

DNA sequences of multiple copies help in understanding evolutionary mechanisms, genomic structures and karyotype differentiation. The current study investigates the organization and distribution of different repetitive DNA in the standard complement and B chromosomes in Astyanax scabripinnis (Jenyns, 1842) chromosomes from three allopatric populations in Campos do Jordão region, São Paulo State, Brazil. The location of microsatellite sequences showed different chromosome distribution between Lavrinha Farm Stream (LFS) and Lake of Pedalinho (LP) populations. However, the karyotype of these populations basically followed the pattern of dispersed distribution in the A complement, conspicuous in telomeric/interstitial regions and preferential accumulation in the B chromosome. The B chromosome showed heterogeneous location of microsatellite probes CA, CAC and GA. The H3 and H4 histone genes were isolated from the total genome of the species and then the chromosomal mapping was performed by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The FISH signals showed high similarity for the probes H3 and H4 mapping in genomes of the populations analyzed. The sequences (GATA) _n revealed a sex-specific trend between the chromosomal location in males and females at (LFS) and (LP) populations. Although species that comprise the Astyanax scabripinnis complex do not have morphologically differentiated sex chromosomes, the preferential GATA location - sex-associated - may represent a sex chromosome in differentiation.

Karyoevolutionary Inferences in Enigmatic Taxon Astyanax (Teleostei: Characidae)

Accessing the taxonomy of fish is a basic condition for the conservation of species, and the understanding of their evolutionary relationships. Many Neotropical species of fishes of the order Characiformes are considered incertae sedis because of a lack of consistent evidence of monophyly, with the genus Astyanax among them. With a cytotaxonomic and evolutionary purpose, we compared the karyotype of two species of Astyanax: Astyanax paranae and Astyanax elachylepis. Conventional cytogenetic analyses revealed 2n = 50 chromosomes for the two species, with interspecific and interpopulation karyotype variations. Heterochromatin was primarily localized in the pericentromeric regions, and it was associated with organized regions of the nucleolus (NORs) and/or telomeric regions in some acrocentric chromosomes. The in situ localization of 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and 5S probes varied among A. paranae populations. In A. elachylepis, only one chromosome pair was stained by the 18S probe and another by the 5S probe, confirming a simple NORs pattern. These results support the utility of chromosome markers in Astyanax taxonomy and reveal the conserved characteristics of the karyotype of A. elachylepis, consisting exclusively of two chromosome arms, and the occurrence of simple homologous and non-syntenic sites for 18S and 5S rDNA in this species.

Origin of B chromosomes in the genus Astyanax (Characiformes, Characidae) and the limits of chromosome painting

Eukaryote genomes are frequently burdened with the presence of supernumerary (B) chromosomes. Their origin is frequently investigated by chromosome painting, under the hypothesis that sharing the repetitive DNA sequences contained in the painting probes is a sign of common descent. However, the intragenomic mobility of many anonymous DNA sequences contained in these probes (e.g., transposable elements) adds high uncertainty to this conclusion. Here we test the validity of chromosome painting to investigate B chromosome origin by comparing its results for seven B chromosome types in two fish species genus Astyanax, with those obtained (1) by means of the physical mapping of 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA), H1 histone genes, the As51 satellite DNA and the (AC)15 microsatellite, and (2) by comparing the nucleotide sequence of one of these families (ITS regions from ribosomal DNA) between genomic DNA from B-lacking individuals in both species and the microdissected DNA from two metacentric B chromosomes found in these same species. Intra- and inter-specific painting suggested that all B chromosomes that were assayed shared homologous DNA sequences among them, as well as with a variable number of A chromosomes in each species. This finding would be consistent with a common origin for all seven B chromosomes analyzed. By contrast, the physical mapping of repetitive DNA sequences failed to give support to this hypothesis, as no more than two B-types shared a given repetitive DNA. Finally, sequence analysis of the ITS regions suggested that at least some of the B chromosomes could have had a common origin.

Uncovering the Ancestry of B Chromosomes in Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae (Teleostei, Characidae)

B chromosomes constitute a heterogeneous mixture of genomic parasites that are sometimes derived intraspecifically from the standard genome of the host species, but result from interspecific hybridization in other cases. The mode of origin determines the DNA content, with the B chromosomes showing high similarity with the A genome in the first case, but presenting higher similarity with a different species in the second. The characid fish Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae harbours highly invasive B chromosomes, which are present in all populations analyzed to date in the Parana and Tietê rivers. To investigate the origin of these B chromosomes, we analyzed two natural populations: one carrying B chromosomes and the other lacking them, using a combination of molecular cytogenetic techniques, nucleotide sequence analysis and high-throughput sequencing (Illumina HiSeq2000). Our results showed that i) B chromosomes have not yet reached the Paranapanema River basin; ii) B chromosomes are mitotically unstable; iii) there are two types of B chromosomes, the most frequent of which is lightly C-banded (similar to euchromatin in A chromosomes) (B₁), while the other is darkly C-banded (heterochromatin-like) (B₂); iv) the two B types contain the same tandem repeat DNA sequences (18S ribosomal DNA, H3 histone genes, MS3 and MS7 satellite DNA), with a higher content of 18S rDNA in the heterochromatic variant; v) all of these repetitive DNAs are present together only in the paracentromeric region of autosome pair no. 6, suggesting that the B chromosomes are derived from this A chromosome; vi) the two B chromosome variants show MS3 sequences that are highly divergent from each other and from the 0B genome, although the B₂-derived sequences exhibit higher similarity with the 0B genome (this suggests an independent origin of the two B variants, with the less frequent, B₂ type presumably being younger); and vii) the dN/dS ratio for the H3.2 histone gene is almost 4–6 times higher for B chromosomes than for A chromosome sequences, suggesting that purifying selection is relaxed for the DNA sequences located on the B chromosomes, presumably because they are mostly inactive.

Chromosomal Mapping of Repetitive DNA Sequences in Five Species of Astyanax (Characiformes, Characidae) Reveals Independent Location of U1 and U2 snRNA Sites and Association of U1 snRNA and 5S rDNA

Astyanax is a genus of Characidae fishes currently composed of 155 valid species. Previous cytogenetic studies revealed high chromosomal diversification among them, and several studies have been performed using traditional cytogenetic techniques to investigate karyotypes and chromosomal locations of 18S and 5S rDNA genes. However, only a few studies are currently available about other repetitive sequences. Here, the chromosomal location of small nuclear RNA genes, identified as U1 and U2 snRNA clusters, was established and compared to the distribution of 5S rDNA and histone clusters in 5 Astyanax species (A. paranae, A. fasciatus, A. bockmanni, A. altiparanae, and A. jordani) using FISH. The cytogenetic mapping of U1 and U2 snRNA demonstrated a conserved pattern in the number of sites per genome independent of the location in Astyanax species. The location of the U1 snRNA gene was frequently associated with 5S rDNA sequences, indicating a possible interaction between the distinct repetitive DNA families. Finally, comparisons involving the location of U1 and U2 snRNA clusters in the chromosomes of Astyanax species revealed a very diverse pattern, suggesting that many rearrangements have occurred during the diversification process of this group.

Cytogenetic and Molecular Data Suggest Deuterodon pedri Eigenmann, 1907 (Teleostei: Characidae) Is a Member of an Ancient Coastal Group

The genus Deuterodon has been taxonomically recently redefined. Seven of its species have been included in this genus, whereas three others are regarded as Incertae Sedis in Characidae. One of latter is Deuterodon pedri, an endemic species from Santo Antônio River in Minas Gerais. Cytogenetic and molecular data on 21 specimens of D. pedri allowed to reevaluate the phylogenetic position of this taxon. The specimens showed karyotypic formula 12m+12sm+20st+6a, low heterochromatin content, nucleolar organizer regions present in two chromosome pairs, and 10 and 2 labeled regions by fluorescence in situ hybridization with 18S and 5S probes respectively, a karyotype similar to Deuterodon stigmaturus. The phylogenetic tree generated by a cytochrome oxidase subunit I fragment revealed that D. pedri and Deuterodon singularis are closely related and are the sister-group of Deuterodon parahybae, Deuterodon iguape, Astyanax giton, Astyanax intermedius, Astyanax ribeirae, Astyanax scabripinnis, and Probolodus heterostomus. The same arrangement was partially recovered with the nuclear gene RAG2. Our data indicate the genus Deuterodon is not monophyletic and that it is closely related to other species that occur in Brazil coastal basins.

Chromosomal microstructure diversity in three Astyanax (Characiformes, Characidae) species: comparative analysis of the chromosomal locations of the 18S and 5S rDNAs

The species of genus Astyanax is widely distributed in freshwater neotropical zones. Astyanax is considered to be taxonomically confused, similar to other genera placed incertae sedis in Characidae. The cytogenetics of this genus is well characterized; species vary widely in diploid number, from 2n=36 chromosomes in Astyanax schubarti to 2n=50 for most species studied. The size, number, and position of different cytological markers vary among species and populations of Astyanax. We analyzed the karyotypes of individuals from three Astyanax species (Astyanax abramis, Astyanax altiparanae, and Astyanax eigenmanniorum) from populations not previously analyzed. We describe variations in several cytogenetic markers and the karyotypic relationships between them, specifically focusing on the characteristics of the conserved and divergent locations of the ribosomal genes. Our data are useful for establishing relationships between species and for investigating the karyotype evolution within the genus.

Delimiting the origin of a B chromosome by FISH mapping, chromosome painting and DNA sequence analysis in Astyanax paranae (Teleostei, Characiformes)

Supernumerary (B) chromosomes have been shown to contain a wide variety of repetitive sequences. For this reason, fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) is a useful tool for ascertaining the origin of these genomic elements, especially when combined with painting from microdissected B chromosomes. In order to investigate the origin of B chromosomes in the fish species Astyanax paranae, these two approaches were used along with PCR amplification of specific DNA sequences obtained from the B chromosomes and its comparison with those residing in the A chromosomes. Remarkably, chromosome painting with the one-arm metacentric B chromosome probe showed hybridization signals on entire B chromosome, while FISH mapping revealed the presence of H1 histone and 18S rDNA genes symmetrically placed in both arms of the B chromosome. These results support the hypothesis that the B chromosome of A. paranae is an isochromosome. Additionally, the chromosome pairs Nos. 2 or 23 are considered the possible B chromosome ancestors since both contain syntenic H1 and 18S rRNA sequences. The analysis of DNA sequence fragments of the histone and rRNA genes obtained from the microdissected B chromosomes showed high similarity with those obtained from 0B individuals, which supports the intraspecific origin of B chromosomes in A. paranae. Finally, the population hereby analysed showed a female-biased B chromosome presence suggesting that B chromosomes in this species could influence sex determinism.