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Tian S, Xiong X, Zeng J, Wang S, Tremblay BJM, Chen P, Chen B, Liu M, Chen P, Sheng K, Zeve D, Qi W, Breault DT, Rodríguez C, Gerhard R, Jin R, Doxey AC, Dong M. Identification of TFPI as a receptor reveals recombination-driven receptor switching in Clostridioides difficile toxin B variants. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6786. [PMID: 36351897 PMCID: PMC9646764 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33964-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxin B (TcdB) is a major exotoxin responsible for diseases associated with Clostridioides difficile infection. Its sequence variations among clinical isolates may contribute to the difficulty in developing effective therapeutics. Here, we investigate receptor-binding specificity of major TcdB subtypes (TcdB1 to TcdB12). We find that representative members of subtypes 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, and 12 do not recognize the established host receptor, frizzled proteins (FZDs). Using a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9-mediated screen, we identify tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) as a host receptor for TcdB4. TFPI is recognized by a region in TcdB4 that is homologous to the FZD-binding site in TcdB1. Analysis of 206 TcdB variant sequences reveals a set of six residues within this receptor-binding site that defines a TFPI binding-associated haplotype (designated B4/B7) that is present in all TcdB4 members, a subset of TcdB7, and one member of TcdB2. Intragenic micro-recombination (IR) events have occurred around this receptor-binding region in TcdB7 and TcdB2 members, resulting in either TFPI- or FZD-binding capabilities. Introduction of B4/B7-haplotype residues into TcdB1 enables dual recognition of TFPI and FZDs. Finally, TcdB10 also recognizes TFPI, although it does not belong to the B4/B7 haplotype, and shows species selectivity: it recognizes TFPI of chicken and to a lesser degree mouse, but not human, dog, or cattle versions. These findings identify TFPI as a TcdB receptor and reveal IR-driven changes on receptor-specificity among TcdB variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songhai Tian
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Xiaozhe Xiong
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Ji Zeng
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Siyu Wang
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310016, China
| | - Benjamin Jean-Marie Tremblay
- Department of Biology, Cheriton School of Computer Science, and Waterloo Centre for Microbial Research, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Baohua Chen
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Min Liu
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Pengsheng Chen
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Kuanwei Sheng
- Wyss Institute for Bioinspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Daniel Zeve
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Wanshu Qi
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - David T Breault
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, 7 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - César Rodríguez
- Faculty of Microbiology & CIET, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Ralf Gerhard
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rongsheng Jin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Andrew C Doxey
- Department of Biology, Cheriton School of Computer Science, and Waterloo Centre for Microbial Research, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Min Dong
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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2
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Bzówka M, Mitusińska K, Raczyńska A, Skalski T, Samol A, Bagrowska W, Magdziarz T, Góra A. Evolution of tunnels in α/β-hydrolase fold proteins—What can we learn from studying epoxide hydrolases? PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1010119. [PMID: 35580137 PMCID: PMC9140254 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary variability of a protein’s residues is highly dependent on protein region and function. Solvent-exposed residues, excluding those at interaction interfaces, are more variable than buried residues whereas active site residues are considered to be conserved. The abovementioned rules apply also to α/β-hydrolase fold proteins—one of the oldest and the biggest superfamily of enzymes with buried active sites equipped with tunnels linking the reaction site with the exterior. We selected soluble epoxide hydrolases as representative of this family to conduct the first systematic study on the evolution of tunnels. We hypothesised that tunnels are lined by mostly conserved residues, and are equipped with a number of specific variable residues that are able to respond to evolutionary pressure. The hypothesis was confirmed, and we suggested a general and detailed way of the tunnels’ evolution analysis based on entropy values calculated for tunnels’ residues. We also found three different cases of entropy distribution among tunnel-lining residues. These observations can be applied for protein reengineering mimicking the natural evolution process. We propose a ‘perforation’ mechanism for new tunnels design via the merging of internal cavities or protein surface perforation. Based on the literature data, such a strategy of new tunnel design could significantly improve the enzyme’s performance and can be applied widely for enzymes with buried active sites. So far very little is known about proteins tunnels evolution. The goal of this study is to evaluate the evolution of tunnels in the family of soluble epoxide hydrolases—representatives of numerous α/β-hydrolase fold enzymes. As a result two types of tunnels evolution analysis were proposed (a general and a detailed approach), as well as a ‘perforation’ mechanism which can mimic native evolution in proteins and can be used as an additional strategy for enzymes redesign.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bzówka
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Karolina Mitusińska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Agata Raczyńska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Tomasz Skalski
- Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Samol
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Weronika Bagrowska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Tomasz Magdziarz
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Artur Góra
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
- * E-mail:
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3
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Welsh KA, Bolhuis DL, Nederstigt AE, Boyer J, Temple BRS, Bonacci T, Gu L, Ordureau A, Harper JW, Steimel JP, Zhang Q, Emanuele MJ, Harrison JS, Brown NG. Functional conservation and divergence of the helix-turn-helix motif of E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes. EMBO J 2022; 41:e108823. [PMID: 34942047 PMCID: PMC8804933 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021108823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyubiquitination by E2 and E3 enzymes is crucial to cell cycle control, epigenetic regulation, and development. The hallmark of the E2 family is the ubiquitin (Ub)-conjugating (UBC) domain that forms a dynamic thioester conjugate with ubiquitin (E2~Ub). Numerous studies have focused on E2 surfaces, such as the N-terminal and crossover helices, that directly interact with an E3 or the conjugated ubiquitin to stabilize the active, "closed" state of the E2~Ub. However, it remains unclear how other E2 surfaces regulate ubiquitin transfer. Here, we demonstrate the helix-turn-helix (HTH) motif of the UBC tunes the intrinsic polyubiquitination activity through distinct functions in different E2s. Interestingly, the E2HTH motif is repurposed in UBE2S and UBE2R2 to interact with the conjugated or acceptor ubiquitin, respectively, modulating ubiquitin transfer. Furthermore, we propose that Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome binding to the UBE2SHTH reduces the conformational space of the flexible E2~Ub, demonstrating an atypical E3-dependent activation mechanism. Altogether, we postulate the E2HTH motif evolved to provide new functionalities that can be harnessed by E3s and permits additional regulation to facilitate specific E2-E3-mediated polyubiquitination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaeli A Welsh
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina School of MedicineChapel HillNCUSA
| | - Derek L Bolhuis
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
| | | | - Joshua Boyer
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
| | - Brenda R S Temple
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
- R L Juliano Structural Bioinformatics Core FacilityUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
| | - Thomas Bonacci
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina School of MedicineChapel HillNCUSA
| | - Li Gu
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of the PacificStocktonCAUSA
| | - Alban Ordureau
- Department of Cell BiologyBlavatnik Institute of Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
- Present address:
Cell Biology ProgramSloan Kettering InstituteMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer CenterNew YorkNYUSA
| | - J Wade Harper
- Department of Cell BiologyBlavatnik Institute of Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
| | - Joshua P Steimel
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of the PacificStocktonCAUSA
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
| | - Michael J Emanuele
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina School of MedicineChapel HillNCUSA
| | | | - Nicholas G Brown
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of North Carolina School of MedicineChapel HillNCUSA
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Phylogenomics of 8,839 Clostridioides difficile genomes reveals recombination-driven evolution and diversification of toxin A and B. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1009181. [PMID: 33370413 PMCID: PMC7853461 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is the major worldwide cause of antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal infection. A pathogenicity locus (PaLoc) encoding one or two homologous toxins, toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB), is essential for C. difficile pathogenicity. However, toxin sequence variation poses major challenges for the development of diagnostic assays, therapeutics, and vaccines. Here, we present a comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of 8,839 C. difficile strains and their toxins including 6,492 genomes that we assembled from the NCBI short read archive. A total of 5,175 tcdA and 8,022 tcdB genes clustered into 7 (A1-A7) and 12 (B1-B12) distinct subtypes, which form the basis of a new method for toxin-based subtyping of C. difficile. We developed a haplotype coloring algorithm to visualize amino acid variation across all toxin sequences, which revealed that TcdB has diversified through extensive homologous recombination throughout its entire sequence, and formed new subtypes through distinct recombination events. In contrast, TcdA varies mainly in the number of repeats in its C-terminal repetitive region, suggesting that recombination-mediated diversification of TcdB provides a selective advantage in C. difficile evolution. The application of toxin subtyping is then validated by classifying 351 C. difficile clinical isolates from Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, demonstrating its clinical utility. Subtyping partitions TcdB into binary functional and antigenic groups generated by intragenic recombinations, including two distinct cell-rounding phenotypes, whether recognizing frizzled proteins as receptors, and whether it can be efficiently neutralized by monoclonal antibody bezlotoxumab, the only FDA-approved therapeutic antibody. Our analysis also identifies eight universally conserved surface patches across the TcdB structure, representing ideal targets for developing broad-spectrum therapeutics. Finally, we established an open online database (DiffBase) as a central hub for collection and classification of C. difficile toxins, which will help clinicians decide on therapeutic strategies targeting specific toxin variants, and allow researchers to monitor the ongoing evolution and diversification of C. difficile.
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Hamm MO, Moss BL, Leydon AR, Gala HP, Lanctot A, Ramos R, Klaeser H, Lemmex AC, Zahler ML, Nemhauser JL, Wright RC. Accelerating structure-function mapping using the ViVa webtool to mine natural variation. PLANT DIRECT 2019; 3:e00147. [PMID: 31372596 PMCID: PMC6658840 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of sequenced genomes are now publicly available capturing a significant amount of natural variation within plant species; yet, much of these data remain inaccessible to researchers without significant bioinformatics experience. Here, we present a webtool called ViVa (Visualizing Variation) which aims to empower any researcher to take advantage of the amazing genetic resource collected in the Arabidopsis thaliana 1001 Genomes Project (http://1001genomes.org). ViVa facilitates data mining on the gene, gene family, or gene network level. To test the utility and accessibility of ViVa, we assembled a team with a range of expertise within biology and bioinformatics to analyze the natural variation within the well-studied nuclear auxin signaling pathway. Our analysis has provided further confirmation of existing knowledge and has also helped generate new hypotheses regarding this well-studied pathway. These results highlight how natural variation could be used to generate and test hypotheses about less-studied gene families and networks, especially when paired with biochemical and genetic characterization. ViVa is also readily extensible to databases of interspecific genetic variation in plants as well as other organisms, such as the 3,000 Rice Genomes Project ( http://snp-seek.irri.org/) and human genetic variation ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/).
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan O. Hamm
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashington
| | | | | | - Hardik P. Gala
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashington
| | - Amy Lanctot
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashington
| | - Román Ramos
- Department of BiologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashington
| | - Hannah Klaeser
- Department of BiologyWhitman CollegeWalla WallaWashington
| | | | | | | | - R. Clay Wright
- Biological Systems EngineeringVirginia TechBlacksburgVirginia
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Henry KA, van Faassen H, Harcus D, Marcil A, Hill JJ, Muyldermans S, MacKenzie CR. Llama peripheral B-cell populations producing conventional and heavy chain-only IgG subtypes are phenotypically indistinguishable but immunogenetically distinct. Immunogenetics 2019; 71:307-320. [PMID: 30656359 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-018-01102-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Camelid ungulates produce homodimeric heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) in addition to conventional antibodies consisting of paired heavy and light chains. In the llama, HCAbs are made up by at least two subclasses (long-hinge IgG2b and short-hinge IgG2c HCAbs vs. conventional heterotetrameric IgG1s). Here, we generated murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for the hinge-CH2 boundary of llama IgG2b (mAb 1C10) and the Fc of llama IgG2c HCAbs (mAb 5E4). Flow cytometric analysis of llama peripheral blood lymphocytes revealed that IgG1+, IgG2b+ and IgG2c+ B cells could be distinguished using mAbs 1C10/5E4 but had equivalent expression of three other cell-surface markers. MiSeq sequencing of the peripheral B cell repertoires of three llamas showed that (i) IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs were present in similar proportions in the repertoire, (ii) a subset of IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs, but not IgG1s, entirely lacked a hinge exon and showed direct VHH-CH2 splicing; these "hingeless" HCAbs were clonally expanded, somatically mutated and derived from hinged HCAb precursors, (iii) substantial repertoire overlap existed between IgG subclasses, especially between IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs, (iv) the complementarity-determining region (CDR)-H3 length distributions of IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs were broader and biased towards longer lengths compared with IgG1s due to increased N-nucleotide addition, (v) IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs used a more restricted set of IGHV genes compared with IgG1s, and (vi) IgG2b and IgG2c HCAbs had elevated somatic mutations rates of both CDRs and framework regions (FRs) compared with IgG1s, especially of CDR-H1 and FR3. The distinct molecular features of llama IgG1, IgG2b and IgG2c antibodies imply that these subclasses may have divergent immunological functions and suggest that specific mechanisms operate to diversify HCAb repertoires in the absence of a light chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Henry
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Henk van Faassen
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Doreen Harcus
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Anne Marcil
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Jennifer J Hill
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - C Roger MacKenzie
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada.,School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
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Mitusińska K, Magdziarz T, Bzówka M, Stańczak A, Gora A. Exploring Solanum tuberosum Epoxide Hydrolase Internal Architecture by Water Molecules Tracking. Biomolecules 2018; 8:biom8040143. [PMID: 30424576 PMCID: PMC6315908 DOI: 10.3390/biom8040143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several different approaches are used to describe the role of protein compartments and residues in catalysis and to identify key residues suitable for the modification of the activity or selectivity of the desired enzyme. In our research, we applied a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and a water tracking approach to describe the water accessible volume of Solanum tuberosum epoxide hydrolase. Using water as a molecular probe, we were able to identify small cavities linked with the active site: (i) one made up of conserved amino acids and indispensable for the proper positioning of catalytic water and (ii) two others in which modification can potentially contribute to enzyme selectivity and activity. Additionally, we identified regions suitable for de novo tunnel design that could also modify the catalytic properties of the enzyme. The identified hot-spots extend the list of the previously targeted residues used for modification of the regioselectivity of the enzyme. Finally, we have provided an example of a simple and elegant process for the detailed description of the network of cavities and tunnels, which can be used in the planning of enzyme modifications and can be easily adapted to the study of any other protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Mitusińska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Magdziarz
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Maria Bzówka
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Stańczak
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Artur Gora
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
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