Clinical and economic burden of pneumococcal disease in US adults aged 19-64 years with chronic or immunocompromising diseases: an observational database study

Clinical and economic burden of invasive pneumococcal disease and noninvasive all-cause pneumonia in hospitalized US adults: A multicenter analysis from 2015 to 2020

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the clinical and economic outcomes in adults hospitalized with invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and noninvasive all-cause pneumonia (ACP) overall and by antimicrobial resistance (AMR) status.

METHODS

Hospitalized adults from the BD Insights Research Database with an ICD10 code for IPD, noninvasive ACP or a positive Streptococcus pneumoniae culture/urine antigen test were included. Descriptive statistics and multivariable analyses were used to evaluate outcomes (in-hospital mortality, length of stay [LOS], cost per admission, and hospital margin [costs - payments]).

RESULTS

The study included 88,182 adult patients at 90 US hospitals (October 2015-February 2020). Most (98.6%) had noninvasive ACP and 40.2% were <65 years old. Of 1450 culture-positive patients, 37.7% had an isolate resistant to ≥1 antibiotic class. Observed mortality, median LOS, cost per admission, and hospital margins were 8.3%, 6 days, $9791, and $11, respectively. Risk factors for mortality included ≥50 years of age, higher risk of pneumococcal disease (based on chronic or immunocompromising conditions), and intensive care unit admission. Patients with IPD had similar mortality rates and hospital margins compared with noninvasive ACP, but greater costs per admission and LOS.

CONCLUSION

IPD and noninvasive ACP are associated with substantial clinical and economic burden across all adult age groups. Expanded pneumococcal vaccination programs may help reduce disease burden and decrease hospital costs.

The potential impact of PCV-13, PCV-15 and PCV-20 vaccines in Colombia

PURPOSE

To provide information about which pneumococcal vaccine could have greater coverage in Colombia.

METHODS

This is a retrospective analysis of patients diagnosed with invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) between 2015 and 2019 in Bogotá, Colombia. We compared the theoretical serotype coverage of the available anti-pneumococcal vaccines (i.e., PCV-10, PCV-10 SII, PCV-13, PCV-15, PCV-20, PCV-21, PCV24, PPSV-23) and the non-vaccine-covered serotypes stratified by age.

RESULTS

690 IPD cases were included. In children ≤5 y/o, of the approved vaccines PCV-20 showed the most theoretical protection (71.3 % [149/209]), while in adults aged 18-64 y/o was PCV-20 (61.8 % [164/265]), and in those ≥65 y/o was PPSV-23 (58.1 % [100/172]) followed by PCV-20 (55.2 % [95/172]). The non-covered serotypes represented one-third of the cohort (33.9 % [234/690]), being 6C (20.5 % [48/234]), 15A (12.8 % [30/234]), and 23A (11.5 % [27/234]) the most prevalent.

CONCLUSION

Introducing PCV-20 for children and PCV-20 along with a PPSV-23 booster in adults may reduce IPD frequency in all ages in Colombia. The inclusion of non-covered serotypes is required for future vaccines.

Retrospective database analysis for clinical diagnoses commonly associated with pneumococcal diseases in the Malaysian healthcare system over a 3-year period (2013-2015)

BACKGROUND

Pneumococcal disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is an important cause of morbidity and mortality across all ages, particularly in younger children and older adults. Here, we describe pneumococcal disease hospitalizations at Ministry of Health (MoH) facilities in Malaysia between 2013 and 2015.

METHODS

This was a retrospective databases analysis. Tabular data from the Malaysian Health Data Warehouse (MyHDW) were used to identify microbiologically confirmed, pneumococcal disease hospitalizations and deaths during hospitalization, using hospital-assigned ICD-10 codes (i.e., classified as meningitis, pneumonia, or non-meningitis non-pneumonia). Case counts, mortality counts, and case fatality rates were reported by patient age group and by Malaysian geographic region.

RESULTS

A total of 683 pneumococcal disease hospitalizations were identified from the analysis: 53 pneumococcal meningitis hospitalizations (5 deaths and 48 discharges), 413 pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations (24 deaths and 389 discharges), and 205 non-meningitis non-pneumonia pneumococcal disease hospitalizations (58 deaths and 147 discharges). Most hospitalizations occurred in children aged < 2 years. Crude mortality was highest among children aged < 2 years (for all three disease categories), among adults aged ≥ 65 years (for pneumococcal pneumonia), or among adults aged 65-85 years (for non-meningitis non-pneumonia pneumococcal disease). The case fatality rate, all ages included, was 5.8% for pneumococcal pneumonia, 9.1% for pneumococcal meningitis, and 28.3% for non-meningitis non-pneumonia pneumococcal disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first to document pneumococcal disease hospitalizations and deaths during hospitalization in Malaysia. Although this database analysis likely underestimated case counts, and the true disease burden could be even greater, the study demonstrates a substantial burden of pneumococcal disease. Public health measures, including vaccination, would significantly contribute to the prevention of hospitalizations and deaths associated with pneumococcal disease in Malaysia.

Phase 3 trial to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of V114, a 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, followed by 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine 6 months later, in at-risk adults 18-49 years of age (PNEU-DAY): A subgroup analysis by baseline risk factors

Immunocompetent adults with certain medical and behavioral factors are at increased risk of pneumococcal disease. In some countries, sequential vaccination with 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) followed by 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) is recommended for at-risk adults. This subgroup analysis from a phase 3 study evaluated the safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of sequential administration of either V114 (a 15-valent PCV containing serotypes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 6B, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19A, 19F, 22F, 23F, and 33F) or PCV13, followed 6 months later by PPSV23, in immunocompetent adults 18-49 years of age with pre-defined risk factors for pneumococcal disease. Safety and immunogenicity post-vaccination were analyzed by type and baseline number of risk factors for pneumococcal disease (1 and ≥2 risk factors). This analysis included 1,131 participants randomized 3:1 to receive either V114 or PCV13, followed by PPSV23. The majority (73.1%) of participants had at least one risk factor. Safety and tolerability profiles of V114 and PCV13 were similar across risk factor groups. V114 administered either alone or sequentially with PPSV23 6 months later was immunogenic for all 15 serotypes, including those not contained in PCV13, regardless of the number of baseline risk factors. V114 has the potential to broaden serotype coverage for at-risk adults.

Assessment of Disease Burden and Immunization Rates for Vaccine-Preventable Diseases in People Living with HIV: The Korea HIV/AIDS Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Prophylactic immunization is important for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients; however, there are insufficient data on the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs), vaccination rates, and factors influencing vaccination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The incidence and prevalence of VPDs in HIV-infected patients between 2006 and 2017 were estimated using the Korean HIV/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) cohort database. In addition, we evaluated the vaccination rates and influencing factors for vaccination in HIV-infected patients through multilevel analysis of clinico-epidemiological factors, immune status, and psychological status. A questionnaire survey was conducted among experts to determine whether they recommend vaccination for HIV-infected patients.

RESULTS

The incidence rates of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, herpes zoster, and anogenital warts were 1.74, 7.38, and 10.85 per 1,000 person-years, respectively. The prevalence of HBV infection and anogenital warts at enrollment was 4.8% and 8.6%, respectively, which increased to 5.3% and 12.0%, respectively, by 2017. In HIV-infected patients, HBV (21.7% in 2008, 56.3% in 2013, and 75.4% in 2017) and pneumococcal vaccination rates (3.0% in 2015, 7.6% in 2016, and 9.6% in 2017) increased annually, whereas the influenza vaccination rate remained similar by season (32.7 - 35.6%). In the multilevel analysis, peak HIV viral load (≥50 copies/mL: odds ratio [OR] = 0.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.44 - 0.93; reference, <50 copies/mL) was an influencing factor for pneumococcal vaccination, while nadir CD4 T-cell counts (200 - 350 cells/mm3: OR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.38 - 0.76; <200 cells/mm3: OR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.62 - 1.28; reference, ≥350 cells/mm3) was an influencing factor for HBV vaccination. Influenza vaccination was associated with male sex (OR = 1.94) and the number of antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimen change (OR = 1.16), but was not significantly associated with HIV viral load or CD4 T-cell counts. Most experts responded that they administer hepatitis A virus, HBV, pneumococcal, and influenza vaccines routinely, but not human papillomavirus (12.9%) or herpes zoster vaccines (27.1%).

CONCLUSION

The burden of vaccine-preventable diseases was quite high in HIV-infected patients. Nadir CD4 T-cell counts, peak HIV viral loads, and the number of ART regimen change are significant factors related to vaccination. Considering the low vaccination rates for VPDs, there was a discordance between experts' opinions and real clinical practice in the medical field.

Invasive Pneumococcal Diseases in Korean Adults After the Introduction of Pneumococcal Vaccine into the National Immunization Program

Although Streptococcus pneumoniae has been one of the most common bacterial causes of disease in humans, its impact has been blunted by the broad use of vaccines. Since 2018, the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease in Korea decreased with effective pneumococcal vaccines but is on the rise again recently. In this paper I will review the epidemiology, risk factors, and antibiotic resistance of invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of the pneumococcal vaccine in Korean adults.

Review of the unmet medical need for vaccination in adults with immunocompromising conditions: An Indian perspective

Immunocompromised (IC) populations are at increased risk of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs). In India, the concern of VPDs in IC populations is particularly acute due to the prevalence of crowded living situations, poor sanitation and variable access to healthcare services. We present a narrative review of IC-related disease and economic burden, risk of VPDs and vaccination guidelines, based on global and India-specific literature (2000-2022). IC conditions considered were cancer, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, respiratory disorders, disorders treated with immunosuppressive therapy, and human immune deficiency virus (HIV). The burden of IC populations in India is comparable to the global population, except for cancer and HIV, which have lower prevalence compared with the global average. Regional and socioeconomic inequalities exist in IC prevalence; VPDs add to the burden of IC conditions, especially in lower income strata. Adult vaccination programs could improve health and reduce the economic impact of VPDs in IC populations.

Economic burden of acute otitis media, pneumonia, and invasive pneumococcal disease in children in the United States after the introduction of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines during 2014-2018

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus pneumoniae remains a leading cause of morbidity, mortality, and healthcare resource utilization (HRU) among children. This study quantified HRU and cost of acute otitis media (AOM), pneumonia, and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD).

METHODS

The IBM MarketScan® Commercial Claims and Encounters and Multi-State Medicaid databases from 2014 to 2018 were analyzed. Children with AOM, all-cause pneumonia, or IPD episodes were identified using diagnosis codes in inpatient and outpatient claims. HRU and costs were described for each condition in the commercial and Medicaid-insured populations. National estimates of the number of episodes and total cost ($US 2019 for each condition were extrapolated using data from the US Census Bureau.

RESULTS

Approximately 6.2 and 5.6 million AOM episodes were identified in commercial and Medicaid-insured children, respectively, during the study period. Mean cost per AOM episode was $329 (SD $1505) for commercial and $184 (SD $1524) for Medicaid-insured children. A total of 619,876 and 531,095 all-cause pneumonia cases were identified among commercial and Medicaid-insured children, respectively. Mean cost per all-cause pneumonia episode was $2304 (SD $32,309) in the commercial and $1682 (SD $19,282) in the Medicaid-insured population. A total of 858 and 1130 IPD episodes were identified among commercial and Medicaid-insured children, respectively. Mean cost per IPD episode was $53,213 (SD $159,904) for commercial and $23,482 (SD $86,209) for the Medicaid-insured population. Nationally, there were over 15.8 million cases of AOM annually, with total estimated cost of $4.3 billion, over 1.5 million cases of pneumonia annually, with total cost of $3.6 billion, and about 2200 IPD episodes annually, for a cost of $98 million.

CONCLUSIONS

The economic burden of AOM, pneumonia, and IPD among US children remains substantial. IPD and its manifestations were associated with higher HRU and costs per episode, compared to AOM and all-cause pneumonia. However, owing to their higher frequencies, AOM and all-cause pneumonia were the main contributors to the economic burden of pneumococcal disease nationally. Additional interventions, such as the development of pneumococcal conjugate vaccinees with sustained protection of existing vaccine type serotypes as well as broader inclusion of additional serotypes, are necessary to further reduce the burden of disease caused by these manifestations.

Facilitating access to pneumococcal vaccine for people living with HIV: an experience report

OBJECTIVE

The article describes a strategy to facilitate access to pneumococcal conjugate vaccine 13 (PCV-13) for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHOD

report on the experience regarding the organization of a care service for PLHIV in the city of São Paulo to facilitate access to PCV-13 in the framework of the 2020 influenza vaccination campaign during the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESULTS

through the integration between a PLHIV care service and an Immunization Center (CRIE in Portuguese), it was possible to offer PCV-13 to PLHIV at the point of care, reducing physical barriers to access to immunization. Thus, of the 1,906 PLHIV who passed through the service during the period March 23-July 31, 2020, 84.4% (1,609) received the influenza vaccine, PCV-13 or both. Of the 1609 vaccinated, 50.6% (814) were eligible and received PCV-13.

CONCLUSION

offering the vaccine at the point of care and orienting PLHIV on the importance of vaccination as a disease prevention strategy, identifying those eligible to receive it, was an important action carried out by the institution together with the nursing team, as a strategy to facilitate access to vaccination.

Changing Trends of Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in the Era of Conjugate Pneumococcal Vaccination in Olmsted County: A Population-Based Study

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in the pre-13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (pre-PCV13; 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine era, 2002-2010) and post-PCV13 (2011-2018) time periods.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Using the Rochester Epidemiology Project, we conducted a population-based cohort study of all IPD cases in Olmsted County, Minnesota, from January 1, 2002, to December 31, 2018.

RESULTS

Overall, 187 cases of IPD were identified. The incidence of IPD decreased significantly from 11.1 (95% CI, 9.1 to 13.2) to 5.6 (95% CI, 4.3 to 6.9) per 100,000 person-years when the pre- and post-PCV13 periods (2002-2010 vs 2011-2018) were compared (P<.001). Of the 187 patients with IPD, 112 (59.9%) had previously received at least 1 dose of pneumococcal vaccine. Among the IPD cases in the post-PCV13 period, there was an increase in non-PCV13 serotypes, mainly 11A (from 1.0% [1 of 105] to 6.2% [4 of 64]) and 33F (from 2.9% [3 of 105] to 15.6% [10 of 64]), while PCV13/non-7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine serotypes declined from 38.1% (40 of 105) to 15.6% (10 of 64). At 30 days after an IPD diagnosis, the survival rate was 88.8% (95% CI, 84.4% to 93.4%).

CONCLUSION

A marked decline in IPD incidence occurred during the post-PCV13 era. Because of the observed increase in non-PCV13 serotypes, coupled with multiple factors that impact the epidemiology of IPD, ongoing surveillance of patients with IPD, particularly due to non-PCV13 serotypes, is warranted.

Burden of vaccine-preventable diseases among at-risk adult populations in the US

Life-course immunization holds significant benefit for population health by reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD) through vaccinating individuals at different stages and circumstances in life. The study aimed to determine the epidemiologic, clinical, economic, and societal burden of VPDs among at-risk adult subpopulations in the United States. A systematic literature review was conducted for articles published between January 2010 and June 2020, which identified 72 publications. There was heterogeneity in available epidemiology data, with the prevalence of VPDs ranging from 1.1% to 68.7%. Where the disease burden was described, outcomes were typically worse among high-risk subpopulations than in the general population. Several VPDs, including herpes zoster, meningococcal, and pneumococcal infections were associated with increased costs. This review suggests that subpopulations may not frequently interact with the healthcare system, or their risk factors may not be recognized by healthcare providers, and therefore individuals may not be appropriately targeted for vaccination.

The Economic Burden of Pneumococcal Disease in Children: A Population-Based Investigation in the Veneto Region of Italy

Despite widespread childhood immunization programs, pneumococcal disease (PD) continues to be associated with significant clinical and economic burden worldwide. This retrospective study assessed the PD-related economic burden in children from the Veneto region of Italy following the introduction of a 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) to the Italian immunization schedule in 2010. Between 2010 and 2017, the annual incidences of pneumonia, acute otitis media (AOM), and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), as well as syndromic-disease-related episodes, declined. In our analysis of data from regional expenditure and healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) databases related to children < 15 years of age, we found that regional expenditures decreased between 2010 and 2017 for pneumonia (EUR 8.88 to EUR 3.59 million), AOM (EUR 3.78 to EUR 2.76 million), and IPD (EUR 1.40 to EUR 1.00 million). Despite reductions in PD-related expenditure following the introduction of PCV13, there continues to be an economic burden associated with PD in Veneto, Italy.

Trends in Adult and Elderly Vaccination: Focus on Vaccination Practices in Tunisia and Morocco

Vaccine preventable diseases (VPDs) are a prevailing concern among the adult population, despite availability of vaccines. Unlike pediatric vaccination programs, adult vaccination programs lack the required reach, initiative, and awareness. Clinical studies and real-world data have proven that vaccines effectively reduce the disease burden of VPDs and increase life expectancy. In Tunisia and Morocco, the national immunization program (NIP) focuses more on pediatric vaccination and have limited vaccination programs for adults. However, some vaccination campaigns targeting adults are organized. For example, influenza vaccination campaigns prioritizing at risk adults which includes healthcare professionals, elderly, and patients with comorbidities. Women of childbearing age who have never been vaccinated or whose information is uncertain are recommended to receive tetanus vaccination. Tunisia NIP recommends rubella vaccine mainly for women of childbearing age, while in Morocco, national vaccination campaigns were organized for girls and women (up to 24 years of age) to eliminate rubella. Further, travelers from both countries are recommended to follow all requirements and recommendations in the travel destination. The objective of this manuscript is to provide an overview of the global disease burden of common VPDs including (but not limited to) meningococcal diseases, pneumococcal diseases, hepatitis, and influenza. The review also provides an overview of clinical data and guidelines/recommendations on adult vaccination practices, with special focus on Tunisia and Morocco. Some European and North American countries have concrete recommendations and strategies for adult vaccination to keep the VPDs in check. In Morocco and Tunisia, although, there are sporadic adult vaccination initiatives, the efforts still need upscaling and endorsements to boost vaccination awareness and uptake. There is a need to strengthen strategies in both countries to understand the disease burden and spread awareness. Additional studies are needed to generate economic evidence to support cost-effectiveness of vaccines. Integration of private and public healthcare systems may further improve vaccination uptake in adults.

Vaccine uptake and barriers to vaccination among at-risk adult populations in the US

To reduce morbidity and mortality associated with vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD), it is imperative that vaccination programs are implemented and prioritized throughout all stages of life across all populations. This study aimed to determine vaccine uptake and barriers to vaccination against VPDs among at-risk adult populations in the United States. We conducted a systematic literature review for articles published between January 2010 and June 2020 and identified 153 publications. The review identified 17 at-risk populations. Vaccine uptake was suboptimal among many populations, with factors including age, gender, and disease severity, associated with uptake. This review identified several barriers that impact vaccine uptake among at-risk populations, with concerns over safety, vaccine costs, lack of insurance, and lack of provider recommendation commonly reported across populations. Embracing a national life-course immunization framework that integrates developing policies, guidelines, and education would be a step to addressing these barriers.

Incidence of potentially disruptive medical and social events in older adults with and without dementia

BACKGROUND

Potentially disruptive medical, surgical, and social events-such as pneumonia, hip fracture, and widowhood-may accelerate the trajectory of decline and impact caregiving needs in older adults, especially among people with dementia (PWD). Prior research has focused primarily on nursing home residents with dementia. We sought to assess the incidence of potentially disruptive events in community-dwelling people with and without dementia.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of participants aged 65+ enrolled in the Health and Retirement Study between 2010 and 2018 (n = 9346), including a subset who were married-partnered at baseline (n = 5105). Dementia was defined with a previously validated algorithm. We calculated age-adjusted and gender-stratified incidence per 1000 person-years and incidence rate ratios of: 1) hospitalization for pneumonia, 2) hip fracture, and 3) widowhood in people with and without dementia.

RESULTS

PWD (n = 596) were older (mean age 84 vs. 75) and a higher proportion were female (67% vs. 57%) than people without dementia (PWoD) (n = 8750). Age-adjusted incidence rates (per 1000 person-years) of pneumonia were higher in PWD (113.1; 95% CI 94.3, 131.9) compared to PWoD (62.1; 95% CI 54.7, 69.5), as were hip fractures (12.3; 95% CI 9.1, 15.6 for PWD compared to 8.1; 95% CI 6.9, 9.2 in PWoD). Point estimates of widowhood incidence were slightly higher for PWD (25.3; 95% CI 20.1, 30.5) compared to PWoD (21.9; 95% CI 20.3, 23.5), but differences were not statistically significant. The association of dementia with hip fracture-but not pneumonia or widowhood-was modified by gender (male incidence rate ratio [IRR] 2.24, 95% CI 1.34, 3.75 versus female IRR 1.31 95% CI 0.92,1.86); interaction term p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to PWoD, community-dwelling PWD had higher rates of pneumonia and hip fracture, but not widowhood. Knowing how often PWD experience these events can aid in anticipatory guidance and care planning for this growing population.

The Yin and Yang of Pneumolysin During Pneumococcal Infection

Pneumolysin (PLY) is a pore-forming toxin produced by the human pathobiont Streptococcus pneumoniae, the major cause of pneumonia worldwide. PLY, a key pneumococcal virulence factor, can form transmembrane pores in host cells, disrupting plasma membrane integrity and deregulating cellular homeostasis. At lytic concentrations, PLY causes cell death. At sub-lytic concentrations, PLY triggers host cell survival pathways that cooperate to reseal the damaged plasma membrane and restore cell homeostasis. While PLY is generally considered a pivotal factor promoting S. pneumoniae colonization and survival, it is also a powerful trigger of the innate and adaptive host immune response against bacterial infection. The dichotomy of PLY as both a key bacterial virulence factor and a trigger for host immune modulation allows the toxin to display both "Yin" and "Yang" properties during infection, promoting disease by membrane perforation and activating inflammatory pathways, while also mitigating damage by triggering host cell repair and initiating anti-inflammatory responses. Due to its cytolytic activity and diverse immunomodulatory properties, PLY is integral to every stage of S. pneumoniae pathogenesis and may tip the balance towards either the pathogen or the host depending on the context of infection.

Estimates of the Health and Economic Burden of Pneumococcal Infections Attributable to the 15-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Serotypes in the USA

Introduction

Despite the availability of vaccines, pneumococcal disease (PD) is associated with high clinical and economic burden, mainly caused by non-vaccine serotypes and certain vaccine-type serotypes. V114 is a 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) that contains two epidemiologically important serotypes, 22F and 33F, in addition to the 13 serotypes in 13-valent PCV (PCV13). This study quantified the epidemiologic and economic burden of PD attributable to V114 serotypes among adults in the USA.

Methods

A Markov model was used to estimate the burden of V114 serotypes in a hypothetical, non-vaccinated cohort of US adults ≥ 19 years of age who were tracked from 2019 until death. The model calculated all the invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and non-bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (NBPP) cases, deaths, and costs. Economic burden was estimated from a healthcare payer perspective (2019 US dollars) and discounted at 3%.

Results

The model estimated 415,229 and 10.3 million lifetime cases of V114-type IPD and NBPP, respectively. Serotypes 22F and 33F caused approximately 33% of IPD cases and 20% of NBPP cases, while serotype 3 accounted for approximately 36% of IPD cases and 13% of NBPP cases. V114 serotypes caused 472,063 total lifetime deaths. Total discounted lifetime costs attributable to V114 serotypes were $44.8 billion US dollars.

Conclusions

In this hypothetical model of a non-vaccinated cohort of US adults, V114 serotypes were associated with a substantial health and economic burden, the majority of which was attributable to serotypes 3, 22F, and 33F. The addition of V114 to the national vaccination recommendations may help to reduce the epidemiologic and economic burden associated with PD in adults ≥ 19 years of age in the USA by providing increased coverage of these serotypes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40121-022-00588-x.

Facilitando o acesso à vacina pneumocócica para pessoas vivendo com HIV: relato de experiência

RESUMO Descrever uma estratégia para facilitar o acesso à vacina conjugada pneumocócica 13-valente (PCV-13) para pessoas vivendo com HIV (PVHIV), durante a pandemia de COVID-19. Método: relato de experiência sobre a organização de um serviço de atendimento para PVHIV na cidade de São Paulo, para facilitar o acesso à PCV-13 no decorrer da campanha de vacinação de influenza de 2020, durante a pandemia de COVID-19. Resultados: por meio da integração entre um serviço de atendimento para PVHIV e um Centro de Imunizações (CRIE) foi possível oferecer a PCV-13 para as PVHIV em seu local de atendimento, diminuindo barreiras físicas de acesso à imunização. Dessa forma, das 1906 PVHIV que passaram pelo serviço durante o período de 23 de março a 31 de julho de 2020, 84,4% (1609) receberam a vacina influenza, PCV-13 ou ambas. Dos 1609 vacinados, 50,6% (814) foram elegíveis e receberam a PCV-13. Conclusão: oferecer a vacina em seu local de tratamento e orientar as PVHIV sobre a importância da vacinação como estratégia de prevenção de doenças, identificando os elegíveis a recebê-las, foi uma importante ação realizada pela instituição em conjunto com a equipe de enfermagem, como estratégia de facilitar o acesso à vacinação.

Promising Expectations for Pneumococcal Vaccination during COVID-19

The emergence of new viral infections has increased over the decades. The novel virus is one such pathogen liable for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, popularly known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Most fatalities during the past century's influenza pandemics have cooperated with bacterial co/secondary infections. Unfortunately, many reports have claimed that bacterial co-infection is also predominant in COVID-19 patients (COVID-19 associated co/secondary infection prevalence is up to 45.0%). In the COVID-19 pandemic, Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common coinfecting pathogen. Half of the COVID-19 mortality cases showed co-infection, and pneumonia-related COVID-19 mortality in patients >65 years was 23%. The weakening of immune function caused by COVID-19 remains a high-risk factor for pneumococcal disease. Pneumococcal disease and COVID-19 also have similar risk factors. For example, underlying medical conditions on COVID-19 and pneumococcal diseases increase the risk for severe illness at any age; COVID-19 is now considered a primary risk factor for pneumococcal pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease. Thus, pneumococcal vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic has become more critical than ever. This review presents positive studies of pneumococcal vaccination in patients with COVID-19 and other medical conditions and the correlational effects of pneumococcal disease with COVID-19 to prevent morbidity and mortality from co/secondary infections and superinfections. It also reports the importance and role of pneumococcal vaccination during the current COVID-19 pandemic era to strengthen the global health system.

Immunogenicity, Safety, and Tolerability of V114, a 15-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine, in Immunocompetent Adults Aged 18–49 Years With or Without Risk Factors for Pneumococcal Disease: A Randomized Phase 3 Trial (PNEU-DAY)

Background

Adults with certain medical and behavioral factors are at increased risk for pneumococcal disease (PD). Sequential vaccination with 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) followed by 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) is recommended for at-risk adults in some countries.

Methods

This phase 3 trial evaluated the safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of sequential administration of either V114 (a 15-valent PCV containing serotypes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 6B, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19A, 19F, 22F, 23F, and 33F) or PCV13, followed 6 months later by PPSV23, in immunocompetent adults aged 18–49 years with or without pre-defined risk factors for PD (NCT03547167). Overall, 1515 participants were randomized 3:1 to receive either V114 or PCV13, followed by PPSV23.

Results

Most common solicited adverse events (AEs) following administration of V114 or PCV13 as well as PPSV23 were injection-site pain and fatigue. The proportion of participants with AEs was comparable in both groups. V114 and PCV13 were immunogenic based on opsonophagocytic activity (OPA) geometric mean titers (GMTs) 30 days post-vaccination for all serotypes contained in each respective vaccine. OPA GMTs to the 2 unique serotypes in V114 were robust in the V114 group. PPSV23 was immunogenic for all 15 serotypes contained in V114 in both vaccination groups, including 22F and 33F.

Conclusions

V114 administered alone or sequentially with PPSV23 is well tolerated and immunogenic for all 15 serotypes, including those not contained in PCV13, in immunocompetent adults aged 18–49 years with or without certain medical or behavioral risk factors for PD.

Leveraging Interdisciplinary Teams for Pre-Visit Planning to Improve Pneumococcal Immunization Rates Among Internal Medicine Subspecialty Practices

Background:

Despite the ready availability of pneumococcal vaccines and recommendation of vaccination by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the immunization rates among adults less than 65 years of age with chronic and immunocompromised conditions remain low.

Methods:

This interventional (cohort) study aimed to improve the pneumococcal vaccination rate for patients with an increased risk of pneumococcal disease by utilizing a three-pronged approach. This included: (1) clinician education webinar, (2) pre-visit counseling performed by registered nurses, targeted toward patients with upcoming appointments, to address vaccination status, and (3) modified pre-visit interdisciplinary team huddle with clinicians and registered nurses to review which patients are amenable to vaccination at the time of visit and those who may benefit from re-engagement and further motivational interviewing. After the completion of the 10-week intervention, study organizers reviewed the percent of patients with completed pneumococcal vaccinations.

Results:

In this 10-week rapid cycle initiative, a total of 482 patients were eligible for vaccination. During the intervention phase, 370 patients were contacted and of these 38% of patients were amenable to receiving a vaccine during the pre-visit counseling, 5% were previously vaccinated, 18% were not amenable, and 38% were unreachable prior to visit. This initiative resulted in a 43% increase in the vaccination rate in this cohort.

Conclusions:

The significant increase in vaccination rate supports the utilization of a framework in the multidisciplinary approach to pre-visit planning in non-primary care specialties and other vaccination efforts, especially emerging diseases such as COVID-19. Future directions of study include the efficacy of telemedicine counseling with a same-day appointment for vaccination, co-location of registered nurses within the practice sites, as well as the use of other ancillary staff (such as medical office assistants) to engage patients in pre-visit planning.

Recent Topics of Pneumococcal Vaccination: Indication of Pneumococcal Vaccine for Individuals at a Risk of Pneumococcal Disease in Adults

Pneumococcal disease is one of the most common and severe vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs). Despite the advances in antimicrobial treatment, pneumococcal disease still remains a global burden and exhibits a high mortality rate among people of all ages worldwide. The immunization program of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) in children has decreased pneumococcal disease incidence in several countries. However, there are several problems regarding the pneumococcal vaccine, such as indications for immunocompetent persons with underlying medical conditions with a risk of pneumococcal disease, the balance of utility and cost, i.e., cost-effectiveness, vaccine coverage rate, serotype replacement, and adverse events. Especially for individuals aged 19-64 at risk of pneumococcal disease, physicians and vaccine providers should make a rational decision whether the patients should be vaccinated or not, since there is insufficient evidence supporting it. We describe this review regarding topics and problems regarding pneumococcal vaccination from the clinician's point of view.

Canadian Association of Gastroenterology Clinical Practice Guideline for Immunizations in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)-Part 2: Inactivated Vaccines

Background and Aims

The effectiveness and safety of vaccinations can be altered by immunosuppressive therapies, and perhaps by inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) itself. These recommendations developed by the Canadian Association of Gastroenterology and endorsed by the American Gastroenterological Association, aim to provide guidance on immunizations in adult and pediatric patients with IBD. This publication focused on inactivated vaccines.

Methods

Systematic reviews evaluating the efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of vaccines in patients with IBD, other immune-mediated inflammatory diseases, and the general population were performed. Critical outcomes included mortality, vaccine-preventable diseases, and serious adverse events. Immunogenicity was considered a surrogate outcome for vaccine efficacy. Certainty of evidence and strength of recommendations were rated according to the GRADE (Grading of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) approach. Key questions were developed through an iterative online platform, and voted on by a multidisciplinary group. Recommendations were formulated using the Evidence-to-Decision framework. Strong recommendation means that most patients should receive the recommended course of action, whereas a conditional recommendation means that different choices will be appropriate for different patients.

Results

Consensus was reached on 15 of 20 questions. Recommendations address the following vaccines: Haemophilus influenzae type b, recombinant zoster, hepatitis B, influenza, pneumococcus, meningococcus, tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis, and human papillomavirus. Most of the recommendations for patients with IBD are congruent with the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Canada’s National Advisory Committee on Immunization recommendations for the general population, with the following exceptions. In patients with IBD, the panel suggested Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine for patients older than 5 years of age, recombinant zoster vaccine for adults younger than 50 year of age, and hepatitis B vaccine for adults without a risk factor. Consensus was not reached, and recommendations were not made for 5 statements, due largely to lack of evidence, including double-dose hepatitis B vaccine, timing of influenza immunization in patients on biologics, pneumococcal and meningococcal vaccines in adult patients without risk factors, and human papillomavirus vaccine in patients aged 27–45 years.

Conclusions

Patients with IBD may be at increased risk of some vaccine-preventable diseases. Therefore, maintaining appropriate vaccination status in these patients is critical to optimize patient outcomes. In general, IBD is not a contraindication to the use of inactivated vaccines, but immunosuppressive therapy may reduce vaccine responses.

Canadian Association of Gastroenterology Clinical Practice Guideline for Immunizations in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)-Part 2: Inactivated Vaccines

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The effectiveness and safety of vaccinations can be altered by immunosuppressive therapies, and perhaps by inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) itself. These recommendations developed by the Canadian Association of Gastroenterology and endorsed by the American Gastroenterological Association, aim to provide guidance on immunizations in adult and pediatric patients with IBD. This publication focused on inactivated vaccines.

METHODS

Systematic reviews evaluating the efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of vaccines in patients with IBD, other immune-mediated inflammatory diseases, and the general population were performed. Critical outcomes included mortality, vaccine-preventable diseases, and serious adverse events. Immunogenicity was considered a surrogate outcome for vaccine efficacy. Certainty of evidence and strength of recommendations were rated according to the GRADE (Grading of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) approach. Key questions were developed through an iterative online platform, and voted on by a multidisciplinary group. Recommendations were formulated using the Evidence-to-Decision framework. Strong recommendation means that most patients should receive the recommended course of action, whereas a conditional recommendation means that different choices will be appropriate for different patients.

RESULTS

Consensus was reached on 15 of 20 questions. Recommendations address the following vaccines: Haemophilus influenzae type b, recombinant zoster, hepatitis B, influenza, pneumococcus, meningococcus, tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis, and human papillomavirus. Most of the recommendations for patients with IBD are congruent with the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Canada's National Advisory Committee on Immunization recommendations for the general population, with the following exceptions. In patients with IBD, the panel suggested Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine for patients older than 5 years of age, recombinant zoster vaccine for adults younger than 50 year of age, and hepatitis B vaccine for adults without a risk factor. Consensus was not reached, and recommendations were not made for 5 statements, due largely to lack of evidence, including double-dose hepatitis B vaccine, timing of influenza immunization in patients on biologics, pneumococcal and meningococcal vaccines in adult patients without risk factors, and human papillomavirus vaccine in patients aged 27-45 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with IBD may be at increased risk of some vaccine-preventable diseases. Therefore, maintaining appropriate vaccination status in these patients is critical to optimize patient outcomes. In general, IBD is not a contraindication to the use of inactivated vaccines, but immunosuppressive therapy may reduce vaccine responses.

A Tn-seq Screen of Streptococcus pneumoniae Uncovers DNA Repair as the Major Pathway for Desiccation Tolerance and Transmission

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen that is a common cause of serious invasive diseases such as pneumonia, bacteremia, meningitis, and otitis media. Transmission of this bacterium has classically been thought to occur through inhalation of respiratory droplets and direct contact with nasal secretions. However, the demonstration that S. pneumoniae is desiccation tolerant and, therefore, environmentally stable for extended periods of time opens up the possibility that this pathogen is also transmitted via contaminated surfaces (fomites). To better understand the molecular mechanisms that enable S. pneumoniae to survive periods of desiccation, we performed a high-throughput transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) screen in search of genetic determinants of desiccation tolerance. We identified 42 genes whose disruption reduced desiccation tolerance and 45 genes that enhanced desiccation tolerance. The nucleotide excision repair pathway was the most enriched category in our Tn-seq results, and we found that additional DNA repair pathways are required for desiccation tolerance, demonstrating the importance of maintaining genome integrity after desiccation. Deletion of the nucleotide excision repair gene uvrA resulted in a delay in transmission between infant mice, indicating a correlation between desiccation tolerance and pneumococcal transmssion. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that enable pneumococcal persistence in the environment may enable targeting of these pathways to prevent fomite transmission, thereby preventing the establishment of new colonization and any resulting invasive disease.

Pneumococcal vaccination coverage among adults aged 19 to 64 years with immuno-compromising conditions, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks, or cochlear implants in the US

Background: Adults with immuno-compromising conditions, CSF leaks, or cochlear implants are at increased risk for pneumococcal disease (high-risk patients), yet pneumococcal vaccination rates in the US for this group are low.Methods: A retrospective cohort analysis was conducted from 2010 to 2018 using the Truven Health MarketScan database to estimate pneumococcal vaccination coverage among adults aged 19 to 64 years newly diagnosed with high-risk conditions, and to assess factors associated with receiving the recommended pneumococcal vaccines.Results: The study sample included 2,497,799 adults aged 19 to 64 years old with newly diagnosed high-risk conditions. Most of the study cohort had seven or more annual physician office (52%) and pharmacy (56%) visits. The proportion of high-risk adults who received at least one pneumococcal vaccination increased from 5.4% after 1 year of follow-up to 14.2% after 6 years of follow-up. Compared to those who received no pneumococcal vaccination, high-risk adults who received any pneumococcal vaccination were more likely to be older, female, enrolled in an HMO, had more healthcare encounters, and were treated by a primary care provider.Conclusion: Despite numerous healthcare encounters annually, very few high-risk adults received pneumococcal vaccines, highlighting the need for implementing targeted interventions to increase vaccine uptake in this vulnerable population.

The Burden of Invasive Vaccine-Preventable Diseases in Adults in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region

Implementing vaccination programmes at the national level is key to managing vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) in the overall population. Although paediatric immunization programmes have significantly reduced the burden of VPD, disease burden in adults still poses a substantial challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries such as those within the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Invasive bacterial diseases (IBDs) are an important public health concern within this region, although vaccines are available to prevent the three most common causative organisms associated with IBD: Neisseria meningitidis (NM), Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP), and Haemophilus influenzae (HI). For this review, three separate PubMed searches were used to identify English-language publications describing the epidemiology of NM, SP, and HI in adults within the MENA region. Of the 161 total publications retrieved among all 3 literature searches, 39 were included in this review (NM: 8 publications; SP: 27 publications; HI: 4 publications). Publications describing epidemiology in paediatric or overall populations were excluded. Overall, these studies generally observed a high burden of IBD among adults in this region. Although NM, SP, and HI are communicable diseases in several countries, the surveillance systems in the MENA region are largely inadequate, resulting in poor responses to outbreaks and hindering improvement in outcomes of communicable diseases. Improving IBD surveillance would provide necessary estimates of disease burden, resulting in better vaccination strategies and improved outcomes. In conclusion, the present review provides a summary of the available information on the epidemiology of vaccine-preventable IBD in adults within the MENA region and highlights the need for increased disease surveillance and preventive strategies in these countries.

Role of social determinants of health in pneumococcal vaccination among high-risk adults

OBJECTIVES

To determine the influence of select social determinants of health on uptake of and time to pneumococcal vaccination among those deemed high-risk.

METHODS

Using nationwide claims data for years 2013-2016, adult patients (aged 18-64 years) were followed from their first diagnosis for a condition deeming them high-risk for invasive pneumococcal disease through the subsequent 365 days and observed for pneumococcal vaccination in outpatient clinics and pharmacies. Publicly-available data on select social determinants of health were incorporated into analyses, guided by the WHO vaccine hesitancy matrix. Controlling for baseline demographic and clinical characteristics, logistic regression determined predictors of vaccination and a general linear model compared days to being vaccinated.

RESULTS

A total of 173,712 patients were analyzed of which approximately one quarter (25.3%) were vaccinated against invasive pneumococcal disease within the first year of being deemed high risk, nearly all of which (98.5%) were received in outpatient clinics. The odds of vaccination were higher among urban residents (OR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.144-1.223), areas of higher health literacy (OR: 1.02; 95% CI: 1.019-1.025), and more Democratic-voting communities (OR: 1.5; 95% CI: 1.23-1.88). Conversely, the likelihood of vaccination was particularly low in areas of higher poverty (OR: 0.14; 95% CI: 0.068-0.304) and with limited Internet access (OR: 0.14; 95% CI: 0.062-0.305) as well as among adults who did not also get a seasonal influenza vaccine (OR: 0.05; 95% CI: 0.048-0.052). Time to vaccination was longer in rural residents (B = 8.3, p < 0.0001) and communities with less Internet access (B = 75.6, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Social determinants may be influencing pneumococcal vaccine-seeking behavior among those deemed high-risk, but a more formal and comprehensive framework must be assessed to determine the full impact of these factors across vaccines recommended in adults.

Immunogenicity following revaccination or sequential vaccination with 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) in older adults and those at increased risk of pneumococcal disease: a review of the literature

Introduction: Immunogenicity studies evaluating sequential administration of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) followed by 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) or revaccination with PPSV23 have raised concerns that PPSV23 may not elicit higher antibody levels than those measured following PCV or first PPSV23 dose.Areas covered: Recent literature was evaluated for evidence of blunted immune response (hyporesponsiveness), focusing on studies using adequate intervals between doses in accordance with vaccination recommendations. In eight of nine studies that evaluated revaccination with PPSV23 at an interval of ≥5 years after the previous dose, immunoglobulin G geometric mean concentrations and/or opsonophagocytic assay geometric mean titers for most serotypes increased from pre- to post-repeat vaccination and were comparable between repeat and primary vaccination groups post-vaccination. In seven studies in which PPSV23 was administered after PCVs (8 weeks to 1 year apart), responses to PPSV23 were comparable to those seen after initial PCV dose for shared vaccine serotypes. Studies in which PCVs were administered after PPSV23 were not evaluated.Expert opinion: Published data suggest immune responses following repeat vaccination with PPSV23, or sequential PCV/PPSV23 vaccination, are robust, without evidence of hyporesponsiveness. PPSV23 vaccination of at-risk adults is essential to ensure broad protection against all 23 vaccine serotypes.

Vaccinations and Chronic Diseases: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Self-Reported Adherence among Patients in Italy

The aims of this cross-sectional survey were to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and self-reported adherence to recommended vaccinations among a random sample of patients with chronic conditions presenting for a medical visit in out-patient clinics in Italy. Patients who were healthcare workers (HCWs), those with diabetes, those who had received information by Internet, physicians, and friends/relatives, and those who needed more information were more likely to know that the influenza vaccine is recommended for patients with chronic diseases. More than half (58.2%) and 8.9% self-reported to have received at least one recommended vaccination and more than one, respectively. Patients who believed that vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) were dangerous for them, those who had received information by physicians, and those who needed information were more likely to have received at least one recommended vaccination. This behavior was less likely in married patients, those who were worried about the side effects of the vaccines, and those who suffered from renal failure. The results highlight the need to implement effective vaccination programs in order to decrease the complication of VPDs in at-risk population.

Age and Location in Severity of COVID-19 Pathology: Do Lactoferrin and Pneumococcal Vaccination Explain Low Infant Mortality and Regional Differences?

Two conundrums puzzle COVID-19 investigators: 1) morbidity and mortality is rare among infants and young children and 2) rates of morbidity and mortality exhibit large variances across nations, locales, and even within cities. It is found that the higher the rate of pneumococcal vaccination in a nation (or city) the lower the COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. Vaccination rates with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin, poliovirus, and other vaccines do not correlate with COVID-19 risks, nor do COVID-19 case or death rates correlate with number of people in the population with diabetes, obesity, or adults over 65. Infant protection may be due to maternal antibodies and antiviral proteins in milk such as lactoferrin that are known to protect against coronavirus infections. Subsequent protection might then be conferred (and correlate with) rates of Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) (universal in infants) and pneumococcal vaccination, the latter varying widely by geography among infants, at-risk adults, and the elderly. Also see the video abstract here https://youtu.be/GODBYRbPL00.

Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of a 20-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV20) in Adults 60 to 64 Years of Age

Background

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) have significantly decreased pneumococcal disease worldwide; however, expanding serotype coverage may further reduce disease burden. A 20-valent PCV (PCV20) containing capsular polysaccharide conjugates of serotypes present in the 13-valent PCV (PCV13) and 7 new serotypes (8, 10A, 11A, 12F, 15B, 22F, and 33F) is currently in development. This phase 2 study evaluated safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of PCV20 in adults without prior pneumococcal vaccination.

Methods

In this randomized, active-controlled, double-blinded trial, 444 adults 60 through 64 years of age were randomized to receive either a single dose of PCV20 followed 1 month later by saline placebo or a single dose of PCV13 followed 1 month later by 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine. Local injection site reactions, select systemic symptoms, and adverse events (AEs) were recorded. Immunogenicity was assessed by measuring serotype-specific opsonophagocytic activity (OPA) titers before and approximately 1 month after each vaccination.

Results

Local reaction and systemic event rates were similar after vaccination with PCV20 or PCV13; no serious vaccine-related AEs were reported. In the PCV20 group, functional immune responses as measured by OPA were robust for all 20 serotypes included in the vaccine, with geometric mean fold rises from baseline ranging from 6.0 to 113.4.

Conclusions

PCV20 was well tolerated in adults 60 to 64 years of age, with a safety profile consistent with historical experience of PCVs in this age group. Substantial OPA responses were elicited against all serotypes. Results demonstrate the potential for PCV20 to expand pneumococcal disease protection.

Clinical Trials Registration

NCT03313037.

Recent advances in the epidemiology and prevention of Streptococcus pneumoniae infections

The introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) 7 and 13 into national childhood immunization programs in the US in 2000 and 2010, respectively, proved to be remarkably successful in reducing infant mortality due to invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), resulting in widespread uptake of these vaccines. Secondary herd protection of non-vaccinated adults against IPD has proven to be an additional public health benefit of childhood immunization with PCVs, particularly in the case of the vulnerable elderly who are at increased risk due to immunosenescence and underlying comorbidity. Despite these advances in pneumococcal immunization, the global burden of pneumococcal disease, albeit of unequal geographic distribution, remains high. Reasons for this include restricted access of children living in many developing countries to PCVs, the emergence of infection due to non-vaccine serotypes of the pneumococcus, and non-encapsulated strains of the pathogen. Emerging concerns affecting the elderly include the realization that herd protection conferred by the current generation of PCVs (PCV7, PCV10, and PCV13) has reached a ceiling in many countries at a time of global population aging, compounded by uncertainty surrounding those immunization strategies that induce optimum immunogenicity and protection against IPD in the elderly. All of the aforementioned issues, together with a consideration of pipeline and pending strategies to improve access to, and serotype coverage of, PCVs, are the focus areas of this review.

Serotype Distribution, Antimicrobial Susceptibility, and Multilocus Sequencing Type (MLST) of Streptococcus pneumoniae From Adults of Three Hospitals in Shanghai, China

Background:Streptococcus pneumoniae, a main causative agent associated with invasive and non-invasive infection in elderly population, is a major global health problem. After pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines (PPV) were introduced, the distribution of S. pneumoniae serotypes has changed. There was currently limited data on epidemiology and status of antimicrobial resistance of S. pneumoniae in Shanghai.

Objective: To determine the serotype distribution, antimicrobial susceptibility and molecular epidemiology of S. pneumoniae isolated from adults in Shanghai.

Method: A total of 75 S. pneumoniae isolates consecutively collected from 2015 through 2017 were serotyped by conventional multiplex-PCR. The antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by broth microdilution method. The multilocus sequence type (MLST) was performed to estimate the molecular epidemiology.

Results: The predominant serotypes among the isolates were 19F (20.00%), 3 (16.00%), 23F (9.33%), 14 (8.00%), and19A (5.33%). The prevalence of pneumococcal strains with serotypes targeted by vaccines PCV7, PCV10, PCV13, and PPV23 was 44, 45.33, 66.67, and 80%, respectively. Penicillin non-susceptible S. pneumoniae (PNSSP) accounted for 16% of the isolates examined and resistance to erythromycin, azithromycin, tetracycline, clindamycin, cefaclor and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole were found in 92.00, 90.67, 86.67, 81.33, 54.67, and 54.67% of isolates, with most isolates (78.67%) presenting multidrug-resistance. The top three sequence types (STs) were ST271 (17.33%), ST180 (9.33%), and ST81 (8.00%). The international resistance clone complexes Spain^23F-1 (n = 4), Netherland³-31 (n = 8), and Taiwan^19F-14 (n = 14) were identified.

Conclusions: The S. pneumoniae isolates showed high genetic diversity in Shanghai and the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance was also high among S. pneumoniae isolates, most of which were multidrug-resistant. The spread of international resistance clones might contribute to the increase of resistant isolates. The PPV23 could protect against most pneumococcal capsular serotypes causing infection of adults in Shanghai.

Environmental factors which can affect the burden of pneumococcal disease and the immune response to pneumococcal vaccines: the need for more precisely delineated vaccine recommendations

Introduction: Precision medicine describes the customization of healthcare tailored to the individual patient. Generally, vaccines are considered as public health tools rather than from the individual patient perspective. However, adult vaccination programs in particular should consider many different factors, at the individual level and also from societal, cultural and country-specific perspectives. Currently, most immunization programs, including those for pneumococcal vaccines, have only been adopted on the basis of age or medical risk. Areas covered: Based on a broad literature search, this review addresses possible environmental factors which can affect the burden of pneumococcal disease and the immune response to pneumococcal vaccines. Expert opinion: Factors which influence the incidence of pneumococcal disease and the reaction against pneumococcal vaccination, including personal conditions, geographic/ethnic factors and social risks, are diverse. To maximize the effects of pneumococcal vaccination, not only for public health but also to induce optimal effects at the individual level, vaccines need to be verified under diverse situations and with collaboration among relevant medical societies, governments, and the pharmaceutical industry. Whereas vaccines are generally considered only from the public health perspective, flexible, comprehensive and tailored pneumococcal immunization programs, with appropriate policy support, can generate a greater positive impact on public health.

More targeted use of oseltamivir and in-hospital isolation facilities after implementation of a multifaceted strategy including a rapid molecular diagnostic panel for respiratory viruses in immunocompromised adult patients

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Rapid molecular testing for respiratory viruses in immunocompromised adults in a hospital emergency care setting is useful.

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Implementation results in more targeted use of oseltamivir and a reduction in the use of in-hospital isolation facilities.

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No effect was seen on antibiotic use, antibiotic duration, hospital admissions and length of hospital stay.

Background

Immunocompromised adults are more vulnerable to a complicated course of viral respiratory tract infections (RTI).

Objectives

Provide evidence on the effect of implementation of rapid molecular diagnostics for viruses on use of in-hospital isolation facilities, oseltamivir and antibiotic usage, and other clinical outcomes in immunocompromised patients.

Study design

A before-after study during two consecutive respiratory viral seasons, including immunocompromised adult patients presenting at a tertiary care emergency department with clinical suspicion of RTI. During the first season (2016/2017), respiratory viruses were detected using inhouse real-time PCR. The second season (2017/2018), we implemented a diagnostic flowchart including a rapid molecular test for 15 respiratory viruses (FilmArray®). We assessed the effect of this implementation on need for isolation, antivirals and empirical antibiotics.

Results

We included 192 immunocompromised adult patients during the first and 378 during the second season. Respiratory viral testing was performed in 135 patients (70%) during the first and 284 (75%) during the second season (p = 0.218) of which 213 (75%) using the rapid test. After implementation, use of in-hospital isolation facilities was reduced (adjusted odds ratio 0.35, 95%CI 0.19-0.64). Furthermore, adequate use of oseltamivir improved, with fewer prescriptions in influenza negative patients (0.15, 95%CI 0.08-0.28) and more in influenza positive patients (11.13, 95%CI 1.75–70.86). No effect was observed on empirical antibiotic use, hospital admissions, length of hospital stay or safety outcomes.

Conclusions

Implementation of rapid molecular testing for respiratory viruses in adult immunocompromised patients results in more adequate use of oseltamivir and in-hospital isolation facilities without compromising safety.