Liver function following hepatitis C virus eradication by direct acting antivirals in patients with liver cirrhosis: data from the PITER cohort

Long-Term Effects of Direct-Acting Antivirals on Hepatitis C: Trends in Liver Disease-Related Hospitalisations in Italy

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) on hepatitis C virus (HCV) hospitalisation trends in Italy, the country with not only the highest burden of HCV-related disease but also the highest number of patients treated for chronic HCV infection in Europe. Incident hospital discharge records in Italy from 2012 to 2019 that included a liver cirrhosis diagnosis without mention of alcohol, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), HCV and liver cirrhosis without mention of alcohol and/or HCC, cirrhosis with mention of alcohol, as defined by the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9-CM) were reviewed. An interrupted time series analysis compared the incidence of cirrhosis and HCC before and after the introduction of DAAs (Year 2015). Overall, non-alcoholic cirrhosis significantly decreased after the introduction of DAAs (β3 = 0.03) and for those 40-59 years of age (β3 = 0.025). HCV with cirrhosis and/or HCC significantly reduced overall for those aged 40-59 and older than 60 (β 3 = 0.002 $$ {\beta}_3=0.002 $$ ). HCC-related hospitalisation rates significantly decreased in patients younger than 60 (β 3 = 0.03 $$ {\beta}_3=0.03 $$ ). Cirrhosis-related hospitalisations with mention of alcohol did not differ during the study period before and after the year 2015 (β 3 = 0.4 $$ {\beta}_3=0.4 $$ ). There was a significant reduction in HCV-related hospitalisations throughout Italy after introducing DAAs.

Effectiveness of sofosbuvir-based treatments for patients with hepatitis C virus genotype 6 infection: a real-world study from East China

Background

Over the past decade, the proportion of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes (GT) 1 and 2 has decreased in almost all regions of China, while GT 3 and 6 have emerged as new challenges. GT 6 is unique in many respects, like high genetic variability and emerging resistant variants. This study aims to assess the efficacy of sofosbuvir (SOF)-based treatments in patients with GT 6 chronic hepatitis C (CHC).

Methods

A retrospective analysis was conducted on patients with GT 6 HCV infection, who were diagnosed between July 2018 and May 2023. All patients received a 12-week course of SOF-based treatments. The primary efficacy endpoint was sustained virologic response (SVR), which is defined as having undetectable HCV RNA at 12 weeks after treatment completion (SVR12). The efficacy data for SVR12 were analyzed using both the evaluated population (EP) and per-protocol population (PP). For the PP populations, efficacy data were stratified using Forrester plots.

Results

A total of 201 patients were included in the study. In PP population, the end of treatment virological response rate was 99.48% (190/191), the SVR12 rate was 99.31% (143/144), and the SVR24 rate was 100.00% (75/75). Only one patient with genotype 6a experienced a relapse 12 weeks after the completion of treatment, but her HCV RNA was undetectable both at the end of treatment and 24 weeks after the end of treatment. Additionally, the normalization rates of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were significantly higher at the end of treatment (EOT) compared to baseline (27.36% vs. 93.03%, 36.32% vs. 95.02%, p < 0.001). Significant improvements were observed in the levels of total bilirubin, ALT, AST, albumin, globulin, albumin/globulin ratio, gamma-glutamyl transferase, alkaline phosphatase, platelet, fibrosis-4 (FIB-4), and aspartate transaminase to platelet ratio index (APRI) between baseline and EOT (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

SOF-based treatments achieved high virological and biochemical response rates in patients with HCV GT 6 infection.

Impact of Treatment with Direct Antivirals on Coagulation Parameters in Patients with Hepatitis C Virus-Related Liver Cirrhosis and Sustained Virological Response

Background and Objectives: Sustained virologic responses (SVRs) lead to a decrease in portal hypertension, the regression of fibrosis, and the improvement in the hepatic synthesis of procoagulant and anticoagulant factors. We aimed to assess the influence of SVR on coagulation parameters in cirrhotic patients with HCV treated with DAAs. Methods: We performed a prospective study in the Institute of Gastroenterology and Hepatology Iasi, Romania, between January 2022 and February 2024. We included patients diagnosed with compensated and decompensated HCV-related liver cirrhosis, treated with direct antivirals (PrOD ± RBV or SOF/LED ± RBV) for 12/24 weeks. Blood samples for biochemical, immunological, and coagulation tests were collected at the baseline, end of treatment (EOT), and once sustained virological response had been achieved over a period of 12/24 weeks (SVR12/24). Results: We analyzed a group of 52 patients with HCV-related liver cirrhosis, predominantly female (68.0%), and the degree of severity of cirrhosis placed the patients mainly in Child-Pugh classes B (40%) and C (36%). All patients achieved SVRs. The MELD score decreased at EOT (13.48 ± 4.273; p = 0.001) and SVR (9.88 ± 2.774; p = 0.000), compared to the baseline (14.92 ± 4.707). The FibroScan values decreased at SVR (17.596 ± 3.7276; p = 0.000) compared to the baseline (26.068 ± 7.0954). For all common coagulation parameters (platelets, INR, PT, fibrinogen, aPTT), there was a trend towards improvement during treatment, including changes which were statistically significant for the majority of patients. Factor II was low at the baseline (75.40 ± 7.506) but increased at EOT (87.40 ± 9.587) and, later, at SVR (99.12 ± 11.695; p = 0.000). The FVIII values increased at the baseline (175.52 ± 16.414) and decreased at EOT (151.48 ± 13.703) and SVR (143.40 ± 13.937). The FvW values decreased during treatment (146.84 ± 9.428, at baseline; 141.32 ± 9.690, p = 0.000, at EOT; and 126.68 ± 17.960, at SVR). In regard to the anticoagulant factors (PC, PS, ATIII), a significant improvement was brought on by SVR. Advanced stages of liver disease showed the most diminished FII activity, while at the baseline and in Child-Pugh C patients we recorded the highest values of FVIII and FvW. Conclusions: Our study proved that the "reset" of coagulopathy might be due to the improvement in liver function due to viral eradication secondary to AAD therapy.

Screening strategy to advance HCV elimination in Italy: a cost-consequence analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Italy has the greatest burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in Western Europe. The screening strategy represents a crucial prevention tool to achieve HCV elimination in Italy. We evaluated the cost-consequences of different screening strategies for the diagnosis of HCV active infection in the birth cohort 1948-1968 to achieve the HCV elimination goal.

METHODS

We designed a probabilistic model to estimate the clinical, and economic outcomes of different screening coverage uptakes, considering the direct costs of HCV management according to each liver fibrosis stage, in the Italian context. A decision probabilistic tree simulates 4 years of HCV testing of the 1948-1968 general population birth cohort, (15,485,565 individuals to be tested) considering different coverage rates. A No-screening scenario was compared with two alternative screening scenarios that represented different coverage rates each year: (1) Incremental approach (coverage rates equal to 5%, 10%, 30%, and 50% at years 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively) and (2) Fast approach (50% coverage rate at years 1, 2, 3 and 4). Overall 106,200 cases were previously estimated to have an HCV active infection. A liver disease progression Markov model was considered for an additional 6 years (horizon-time 10 years).

RESULTS

The highest increased number of deaths and clinical events are reported for the No-screening scenario (21,719 cumulative deaths at the end of ten years; 10,148 cases with HCC and/or 7618 cases with Decompensated Cirrhosis). Following the Fast-screening scenario, the reductions in clinical outcomes and deaths were higher compared with No-screening and Incremental-screening. At ten years time horizon, less than 5696 liver deaths (PSA CI95%: - 3873 to 7519), 3,549 HCC (PSA CI95%: - 2413 to 4684) and less than 3005 liver decompensations (PSA CI 95%: - 2104 to 3907) were estimated compared with the Incremental-scenario. The overall costs of the Fast-screening, including the costs of the DAA and liver disease management of the infected patients for 10 years, are estimated to be € 43,107,543 more than no-investment in screening and € 62,289,549 less compared with the overall costs estimated by the Incremental-scenario.

CONCLUSION

It is necessary to guarantee dedicated funds and efficiency of the system for the cost-efficacious screening of the 1948-1968 birth cohort in Italy. A delay in HCV diagnosis and treatment in the general population, yet not addressed for the HCV free-of-charge screening, will have important clinical and economic consequences in Italy.

Five-year follow-up of sustained virological response with hepatitis C infection after direct-acting antiviral therapy: A single-center retrospective study

In recent years, direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) have dramatically improved the sustained virological response (SVR) rates in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients with their favorable safety and efficacy. However, there is a lack of data on the long-term prognosis of DAA therapy for CHC patients after achieving SVR in the real world. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term clinical prognosis of patients with chronic hepatitis C treated by DAA after achieving SVR. This study was a single-center, retrospective, observational study that included 243 CHC patients who reached SVR after DAA treatment in the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University from January 2017 to December 2021, with a median follow-up period (FUP) of 24 months, to assess the long-term prognosis and clinical outcomes of CHC patients who reached SVR by DAA treatment. A total of 243 patients were enrolled in this study, 151 patients were male, the mean age of this study was 46.7 ± 12.3 years old, and 23.0% (n = 56) patients were cirrhosis in the baseline. At the end of follow-up, 9 patients (3.7%) progressed to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and patients with cirrhosis at baseline (n = 5) had a significantly higher risk of HCC compared with noncirrhotic patients (n = 4; OR = 4.485, 95% CI: 1.162-17.318, P = .029); 2.9% patients (n = 7) relapsed at the median FUP of 12 months, and patients with genotype 3b had a significantly higher risk of relapsing than those without genotype 3b (OR = 18.48, P = .002, 95% CI: 2.866-119.169). ALT, AST, and ALB all showed improvement at the end of treatment compared with the baseline, remaining at normal levels during FUP meanwhile. The DAA-induced SVR was durable, with conspicuous improvement in clinical outcomes. Nevertheless, patients, especially patients with cirrhosis, still exist the risk of appearance of HCC after reaching SVR. Therefore, regular surveillance and monitoring is necessary even after patients reached SVR.

Direct-acting antivirals failed to reduce the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma occurrence in hepatitis C virus associated cirrhosis: A real-world study

BACKGROUND

Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) revolutionized the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV)-associated disease achieving high rates of sustained virological response (SVR). However, whether DAAs can reduce the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with HCV-associated cirrhosis who are at high risk have not been concluded.

AIM

To investigate the effect of DAAs on the occurrence of HCC in patients with HCV-associated cirrhosis after achieving SVR.

METHODS

Of 427 inpatients with HCV-associated cirrhosis were enrolled in Tianjin Second People's Hospital from January 2014 to April 2020. 118 patients weren't received antiviral treatment with any reasons named non-antiviral treatment group, and 236 patients obtained from the 309 DAAs treatment patients according to the propensity score matching named DAAs treatment group. Demographic information and laboratory data were collected from baseline and the following up. Kaplan-Meier curve and Log-Rank test were used to compare the incidence and cumulative incidence of HCC between the two groups. Cox proportional risk regression was used to re-evaluate the risk factors for HCC.

RESULTS

HCC incidence was 4.68/100PY (95%CI, 3.09-6.81) in the DAAs treatment group, while it was 3.00/100PY (95%CI, 1.50-5.37) in the non-antiviral treatment group, and the relative risk was 1.82 (95%CI, 0.93-3.53, P > 0.05). The incidence of HCC at 12, 24, 36 and 48 months was 3.39%, 6.36%, 8.47% and 10.17% in the DAAs treatment group, and it was 0%, 0%, 3.39% and 9.32% in the non-antiviral treatment group, respectively. Age > 58 [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.089; 95%CI, 1.033-1.147; P = 0.002] and liver stiffness measurement > 27.85 kPa (HR = 1.043; 95%CI, 1.022-1.065; P = 0.000) were risk factors for HCC in all patients (n = 427), and DAAs treatment didn't show protective efficacy.

CONCLUSION

DAAs treatment seems failed to reduce the incidence of HCC occurrence in HCV-associated cirrhosis in 48 months, and even increased the incidence of HCC in 36 months.

Hepatitis B and C Virus Co-Infection and Their Association With Liver Disease in Persons With HIV in Nigeria

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Hepatitis B and C infection and liver disease in people with HIV infection in NigeriaPeople living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection who have hepatitis B or C infection have a higher chance of developing advanced liver disease than those who do not have either of the hepatitis infections. This finding highlights the importance of awareness, screening, and treatment of the hepatitis viruses in HIV programs in order to reduce the risk of liver disease in this population.

Residual risk of hepatocellular carcinoma development for chronic hepatitis C patients treated by all oral direct-acting antivirals with sustained virological response

BACKGROUND

The treatment of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infection underwent a significant transformation with the introduction of all-oral direct-acting anti-virals (DAAs). These medications offered a high success rate in treatment, shorter duration, good tolerability, and expanded treatment options. However, a residual risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development remained for a few patients even after achieving sustained virological response (SVR). To date, there is a lack of real-world data on evaluating risk factors associated with de novo HCC in CHC patients post-SVR, particularly in Taiwan.

METHODS

Between January 2017 and December 2019, a total of 671 consecutive CHC patients who achieved SVR after receiving DAAs were included for analysis. Patients with a history of HCC or liver transplantation prior to DAAs, a short follow-up period (<1 year), or treatment failure with DAAs were excluded. The primary outcome was the development of HCC following the initiation of DAAs. Variables associated with the primary outcome were assessed using multivariate Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

The mean age of the enrolled patients was 65.1 ± 12.8 years, with 39.6% of them being male. Among the patients, 30.6% had advanced (F3-4) fibrosis, and the median follow-up period was 2.90 years. The cumulative incidence of HCC in CHC patients post-SVR12 was 1.6% at 1 year, 4.4% at 2 years, 4.8% at 3 years, 5.3% at 4 years, and 6.1% at 4.8 years, respectively. Variables independently associated with de novo HCC were advanced liver fibrosis (hazard ratio [HR] = 6.745; 95% CI = 1.960-23.218; p = 0.002), end-of-treatment 12 weeks (EOT 12 ) alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) >7 ng/mL (HR = 3.059; 95% CI = 1.215-7.669; p = 0.018), EOT 12 albumin-bilirubin (ALBI) grade ≥ 2 (HR = 2.664; 95% CI = 1.158-6.128; p = 0.021), and body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m 2 (HR = 2.214; 95% CI = 1.011-4.852; p = 0.047).

CONCLUSION

Despite achieving viral clearance with DAAs, CHC patients still face a residual risk of de novo HCC. Establishing a risk stratification model based on independent variables could facilitate the prediction of future HCC development and enhance screening strategies.

Plant-made vaccines against viral diseases in humans and farm animals

Plants provide not only food and feed, but also herbal medicines and various raw materials for industry. Moreover, plants can be green factories producing high value bioproducts such as biopharmaceuticals and vaccines. Advantages of plant-based production platforms include easy scale-up, cost effectiveness, and high safety as plants are not hosts for human and animal pathogens. Plant cells perform many post-translational modifications that are present in humans and animals and can be essential for biological activity of produced recombinant proteins. Stimulated by progress in plant transformation technologies, substantial efforts have been made in both the public and the private sectors to develop plant-based vaccine production platforms. Recent promising examples include plant-made vaccines against COVID-19 and Ebola. The COVIFENZ^® COVID-19 vaccine produced in Nicotiana benthamiana has been approved in Canada, and several plant-made influenza vaccines have undergone clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the status of vaccine production in plants and the state of the art in downstream processing according to good manufacturing practice (GMP). We discuss different production approaches, including stable transgenic plants and transient expression technologies, and review selected applications in the area of human and veterinary vaccines. We also highlight specific challenges associated with viral vaccine production for different target organisms, including lower vertebrates (e.g., farmed fish), and discuss future perspectives for the field.

Racial Disparity in HCV Demographics and Treatment Between Interferon Era (2002-2003) and Direct Acting Anti-viral Era (2019)

Introduction  Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatment increased the sustained viral response (SVR) rate of patients with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and eliminated response disparities between African American (AA) and non-AA patients seen with interferon (IFN). The aim of this study was to compare 2019 HCV patients (DAA era) to patients from January 1, 2002 and December 31, 2003 (IFN era) in our predominantly AA clinic population. Methods We extracted data on 585 HCV patients seen in 2019 (DAA era) and compared them to 402 patients seen in the IFN era. Results Most HCV patients were born between 1945 and 1965, but in the DAA era more younger patients were identified. Non-AA patients in both eras were less likely to be infected with genotype 1 compared to AA (95% vs 54%, P<0.001). Fibrosis was not increased in the DAA Era as compared to the IFN era as assessed either by serum-based assays (APRI, FIB-4) or transient elastography (FibroScan) (DAA era) vs biopsy (IFN era). More patients were treated in 2019 compared to 2002-2003 (159/585=27% vs 5/402=1%). For untreated patients, subsequent treatment within one year of the initial visit was low and similar in both eras (35%). Conclusion There continues to be a need to screen patients born between 1945 and 1965 for HCV as well as to identify increasing numbers of patients below this age cohort. Even though current therapies are oral, highly effective, and can be 8-12 weeks in duration, significant numbers of patients were not treated within a year of first visit.

Hypergammaglobulinemia before Starting DAA Therapy Is A Strong Predictor of Disease Progression in Cirrhotic Patients Even after HCV Clearance

The predictive factors of long-term clinical benefits in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV)—related liver cirrhosis after Direct Antiviral Agents (DAA) treatment are still undefined. The aim of this study was to identify any predictors of liver failure, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and/or death in patients with compensated liver cirrhosis who achieved the sustained virological response (SVR). To this purpose, 324 consecutive cirrhotic patients who started DAA treatment from 1 April 2015 to 31 December 2016 were retrospectively analyzed. All patients were followed up for a median time of 63 months (range 19−77) through clinical/biochemical/instrumental examinations performed at baseline and after stopping the DAA treatment. At the end of the evaluation, 230 (71%) individuals showed stable clinical liver disease over time, 43 (13.3%) developed HCC, and 24 (7.4%) developed hepatic decompensation without HCC. Overall, 49 (15,1%) patients died. Multivariate regression analysis showed that hepatic decompensation was significantly associated with at baseline older age, higher liver stiffness, higher spleen longitudinal size values and hypergammaglobulinemia (p = 0.003, p = 0.005, p = 0.001, p = 0.029, respectively). HCC development was significantly associated with hypergammaglobulinemia (p < 0.001). Death was associated with older age and hypergammaglobulinemia (p < 0.001 and p = 0.007, respectively). Finally, survival analysis confirmed that patients with gamma globulin levels ≥ 1.8 gr/dl had a significantly higher risk of death compared to those with gamma globulin levels < 1.8 gr/dl (p < 0.001). In conclusion, hypergammaglobulinemia before starting DAA therapy represents a strong predictor of hepatic decompensation, HCC and death in cirrhotic patients even after HCV clearance.

Role of hepatitis c virus in hepatocellular carcinoma and neurological disorders: an overview

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes serious issues, affecting 71 million people globally. The most common manifestations range from chronic hepatitis to liver cirrhosis, leading to hepatocellular carcinoma. Many mechanisms are known to play an important role in HCV-induced HCC. The interaction of viral proteins with host cells results in oxidative stress damage, liver inflammation, and irregularities in signaling pathways. These results in the activation of oncogenes and metabolic disturbances, liver fibrosis, and angiogenesis. Additionally, some non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and toll-like receptors have been identified and play a significant role in HCC development. This virus is also associated with impairment of the central nervous system, resulting in acute or sub-acute encephalopathy and inflammatory disorders. Neurological disorders are associated with the inflammatory responses of many cells, including microglia and astrocytes. Additionally, there are many other extrahepatic manifestations, including neurological disorders such as depression and fatigue, in 50% of infected patients. These manifestations include neuro-invasion, immune-mediated damage, neurotransmitter alterations, sensory-motor polyneuropathy, sensitivity loss, weakness of the leg, and cryoglobulinemia, which significantly results in a reduced quality of life. HCV infection may be improved using an appropriate diagnosis and direct antiviral therapy for sustained virological response. However, the success of therapy depends on the symptoms and organ damage, diagnosis, and therapeutic strategies applied. Some published reports have discussed that HCV is associated with both HCC and neurological disorders. Additionally, it has also been observed that individuals with HCC also develop neurological disorders compared with individuals with HCV alone. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest information about the relationship between HCV-induced HCC and their role in neurological disorders. Additionally, we have also discussed the progress made in the diagnosis, physio-pathological mechanisms, and strong antiviral therapies developed for HCV infection and HCC, as well as the latest advancements made in the study of the neurological disorders associated with HCV infection.

Long-term hepatic function of patients with compensated cirrhosis following successful direct-acting antiviral treatment for hepatitis C virus infection

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) have contributed to the improvement of outcomes for all patients with chronic hepatitis C. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term hepatic benefits of hepatitis C virus (HCV) cure by DAAs in patients with compensated cirrhosis.

METHODS

This multicenter cohort study consisted of consecutive patients with compensated cirrhosis who initiated interferon-free DAA treatment before September 2016. The impact of treatment on long-term hepatic function was followed for at least 4 years after the end of treatment, and the progression to decompensation was evaluated.

RESULTS

The data of 394 patients were available for study. The median age was 70, and 41% had modified albumin-bilirubin (ALBI) grade 2b. During a short-term follow-up 1 year after the end of treatment, FIB-4 index and ALBI score significantly improved. The achievement rates of FIB-4 < 3.25 (40%) and ALBI grade 1 (70%) reached their plateau in the first year; however, there were significant further improvements in platelet count and α-fetoprotein level after the first year. The annual incidence of decompensation was 1.30 (95% confidence interval 0.83-2.02) per 100 person-years. In multivariable analysis, male sex and modified ALBI grade 2b at baseline were associated with decompensation.

CONCLUSIONS

In a large real-world cohort of patients with compensated cirrhosis treated with a DAA, remarkable improvement in hepatic function was seen after HCV cure, especially during the first year after the end of treatment. Treatment in the early stage of cirrhosis would be of great benefit for preventing liver deterioration to decompensation.

Markers of Neuroinflammation in the Serum of Prepubertal Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

BACKGROUND

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are the manifestation of the damage caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), the extreme FASD manifestation, show both facial dysmorphology and mental retardation. Alcohol consumed during gestational age prejudices brain development by reducing, among others, the synthesis and release of neurotrophic factors and neuroinflammatory markers. Alcohol drinking also induces oxidative stress.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the potential association between neurotrophins, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in 12 prepubertal male and female FASD children diagnosed as FAS or partial FAS (pFAS).

METHODS

Accordingly, we analyzed, in the serum, the level of BDNF and NGF and the oxidative stress, as Free Oxygen Radicals Test (FORT) and Free Oxygen Radicals Defense (FORD). Moreover, serum levels of inflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, MCP-1, TGF-β, and TNF-α) involved in neuroinflammatory and oxidative processes have been investigated.

RESULTS

We demonstrated low serum levels of NGF and BDNF in pre-pubertal FASD children with respect to healthy controls. These changes were associated with higher serum presence of TNF- α and IL-1α. Quite interestingly, an elevation in the FORD was also found despite normal FORT levels. Moreover, we found a potentiation of IL-1α, IL-2, IL-10, and IL-1α1 in the analyzed female compared to male children.

CONCLUSION

The present investigation shows an imbalance in the peripheral neuroimmune pathways that could be used in children as early biomarkers of the deficits observed in FASD.

Five-Year Follow-Up of Cured HCV Patients under Real-World Interferon-Free Therapy

(1) Background: Treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections with direct-acting antivirals (DAA) has demonstrated high efficacy and an excellent safety profile. The cured patients showed a sustained virological response and improved liver function, but also a continued risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) during the 2-3 years of follow-up after treatment; (2) Methods: A total of 192 patients out of 209 of the primary AMBER study were analyzed five years after treatment with ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir with or without dasabuvir and with or without ribavirin. Results: We confirmed that HCV clearance after DAA treatment is stable regardless of baseline liver fibrosis. We found that sustained virologic response is associated with a gradual but significant reduction in liver stiffness over 5 years. Liver function improved during the first 2 years of follow-up and remained stable thereafter. The risk of death due to HCC as well as death due to HCV persists through 5 years of follow-up after successful DAA treatment. However, in non-cirrhotic patients, it appears to clear up 3 years after treatment; (3) Conclusions: Monitoring for more than 5 years after curing HCV infection is necessary to assess the long-term risk of possible development of HCC, especially in patients with cirrhosis of the liver.