In in vivo evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of compound Muniziqi granule in experimental animal models

PEGylated Platinum Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Study of Their Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects

Pain and inflammation are common symptoms of a majority of the diseases. Chronic pain and inflammation, as well as related dreadful disorders, remain difficult to control due to a lack of safe and effective medications. In this work, biocompatible platinum nanoparticles with significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory action were synthesized through a wet chemical method using polyethylene glycol-400 as a capping agent and sodium borohydride as a reducing agent. The average particle size of these Pt nanospheres was determined to be 3.26 nm using TEM analysis, and X-ray diffraction confirmed their face-centered cubic crystalline structure. Fourier transform infrared and UV-visible spectroscopy confirm that Pt-NPs are coated with the PEG-400 molecule. The significantly negative zeta potential value (-26.8 mV) indicates the stability of the produced nanoparticles. In vitro cytotoxicity studies on normal cell lines show nontoxic behavior with over 96% cell viability at 100 μg/mL of the test sample. In vitro assays of inhibition of protein denaturation and DPPH free radical scavenging elucidated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of PEGylated Pt NPs with promising EC50 values 57.99 and 9.324 μg/mL, respectively. In vivo animal trials confirmed that PEG-capped Pt-NPs are more effective than conventional medicines. The in vivo hot plate assay for the analgesic study shows a maximum response time of 14.5 ± 1.22 s (92.54% analgesia) at a dosage of 50 mg/kg and 13.8 ± 0.71 s (86.05% analgesia) at a dosage of 25 mg/kg after 180 and 240 min of administration, respectively. In the rat paw edema model for anti-inflammatory activity, the PEG-capped Pt NPs exhibit significant inhibitory action, with the maximum percentage of edema inhibition at a dosage of 50 mg/kg identical to that of the aspirin-based standard medication administered at a higher dosage of 100 mg/kg, resulting in 42% inhibition, suggesting a versatile solution for inflammation and persistent pain.

Development, in vitro and in vivo evaluation of film forming solutions for transdermal drug delivery of Zaltoprofen

Zaltoprofen (ZAL) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with a short half-life (∼2.8 h) due to extensive first pass metabolism. In this context, 16 different polymeric film forming solutions (PFFS) of ZAL were developed using different grades of Eudragits, Polyvinylpyrrolidones, Kollicoat MAE 100 P and Hydroxypropyl cellulose as film formers, and polyethylene glycol 400 as a plasticizer in equal parts of ethanol and isopropyl alcohol used as solvents. Of these solutions, F13 composed of Kollicoat MAE 100 P emerged as an optimal PFFS as it quickly formed a saturated film (10.25 ± 0.75 min) that displayed low drying time (3.00 ± 0.46 min), and high in vitro adhesion (2.67 ± 0.58). Ex vivo permeation studies conducted in Franz diffusion cell across porcine skin indicated that F13 displayed significantly higher (p < 0.001) steady state flux (8.64 ± 1.72 µg.cm-2.h-1), shorter lag time (∼3 h) and better skin content (2.55 ± 0.62 µg/mg) compared to other PFFS. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) proved the chemical integrity of ZAL in polymeric film formed from F13, while Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray Diffractometry (XRD) proved the "anti-recrystallization potential" of PFFS. Anti-inflammatory studies in rats indicated that F13 significantly inhibited (ANOVA, p < 0.001) carrageenan induced paw edema for nearly 12 h compared to topical diclofenac used as standard. In addition, significantly elevated (ANOVA, p < 0.001) analgesic effect was noted in the hot plate test in rats treated with F13 compared to the standard for 12 h proving the superior efficacy of F13. Thus, PFFS by virtue of "in situ evaporative metamorphosis" induced supersaturation can be an attractive platform to deliver ZAL transdermally.

Assessing a "Least-Concern" Red List Tree Species from Madagascar Used in Traditional Medicine: Morella spathulata (Myricaceae) Phyto-Compounds and Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Morella spathulata (Myricaceae family) is a common plant from Madagascar and is present on the IUCN Red List of threatened species classified at the 'least concern' level, used by the local population to treat numerous illnesses and pain. Despite its frequent use, comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological research on the species is limited. This study evaluated the antioxidant, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as the toxicity of methanol extracts from the leaves (MS_L) and bark (MS_B) of M. spathulata. The research involved the analysis of nutritional traits such as sugars, organic acids, vitamin C, polyphenolic content (TPC) and the main phytochemicals by HPLC analysis. Antioxidant capacity was assessed through DPPH and FRAP assays. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated using acetic acid-induced writhing and carrageenan-induced paw oedema tests in mice. The results showed a high content of phenolic and bioactive components in the leaf and bark extracts, associated with antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. The interaction of key compounds such as ferulic acid and ellagic acid with proteins involved in pH regulation and immune modulation provides clues to the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects. However, conservation efforts are crucial due to habitat loss and illegal logging, and further studies are needed to fully explore the plant's therapeutic potential.

Flavonols and Flavones as Potential anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Compounds

Plant preparations have been used to treat various diseases and discussed for centuries. Research has advanced to discover and identify the plant components with beneficial effects and reveal their underlying mechanisms. Flavonoids are phytoconstituents with anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties. Herein, we listed and contextualized various aspects of the protective effects of the flavonols quercetin, isoquercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin and the flavones luteolin, apigenin, 3 $\prime$ ,4 $\prime$ -dihydroxyflavone, baicalein, scutellarein, lucenin-2, vicenin-2, diosmetin, nobiletin, tangeretin, and 5-O-methyl-scutellarein. We presented their structural characteristics and subclasses, importance, occurrence, and food sources. The bioactive compounds present in our diet, such as fruits and vegetables, may affect the health and disease state. Therefore, we discussed the role of these compounds in inflammation, oxidative mechanisms, and bacterial metabolism; moreover, we discussed their synergism with antibiotics for better disease outcomes. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics allows the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains; thus, bioactive compounds may be used for adjuvant treatment of infectious diseases caused by resistant and opportunistic bacteria via direct and indirect mechanisms. We also focused on the reported mechanisms and intracellular targets of flavonols and flavones, which support their therapeutic role in inflammatory and infectious diseases.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory response of berberine-loaded gum nanocomplexes in carrageenan-induced acute paw edema in rats

BACKGROUND

Berberine is a natural plant alkaloid and has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory activity. However, berberine's poor bioavailability and low solubility have limited its clinical applicability. Nanoencapsulation of berberine using a suitable carrier can be a promising strategy to improve its efficacy. Therefore, this study aimed to produce berberine-loaded gum nanocomplexes to evaluate their therapeutic effects in a carrageenan-induced rat model.

METHODS

Berberine-loaded gum nanocomplexes were prepared by the ionic complexation between the negative charges of the gums (tragacanth and acacia gum) using a cross-linker for loading cationic berberine and their anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated against carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. ELISA and qRT-PCR were employed to measure the concentration and mRNA expression level of inflammatory mediators in plasma and paw tissue, respectively.

RESULTS

Berberine nanocomplexes were characterized for particle size (219.5 nm), zeta potential by the dynamic light scattering (DLS), and for entrapment efficiency (93.2%) Infrared spectroscopy affirmed the loading of berberine in gum nanocomplexes. Transmission electron microscopy of formulation showed the spherical shape of nanocomplexes and small particle size (100-150 nm). Pretreatment of rats with berberine nanocomplexes significantly reduced the paw edema in inflamed rat paws, decreased the production of nitrite and TNF-α in plasma and repressed the mRNA expression levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in paw tissue in comparison to berberine per se treated rats.

CONCLUSION

The obtained berberine-loaded gum nanocomplexes produced a better anti-inflammatory effect as compared to berberine alone and hence can be used as an efficient candidate in the treatment of inflammation. The schematic representation of the preparation of the preparation of berberine-loaded tragacanth/acacia gum nanocomplexes and the evaluation in vivo for anti-inflammatory effects.

Rubiadin exerts an acute and chronic anti-inflammatory effect in rodents

Rubiadin is identified as a bioactive anthraquinone that exists in some quinone rich plants. The current research was carried out to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory impact of Rubiadin in acute and chronic inflammation test models in rodents. The anti-inflammatory activity of Rubiadin was examined in cotton pellet-induced granuloma and carrageenan-induced edema as chronic and acute inflammation models in rats. TNF-α level and histopathological changes were assessed using sampled foot tissue of rat in the acute model. Also, the IL-1β level was assessed in the chronic model. One-way ANOVA (post hoc Tukey's) analysis was used for comparing the groups. Rubiadin (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) induced a significant reduction in TNF α level and the paw edema compared to the control group in carrageenan test. Also, it was observed that the anti-inflammatory activity of Rubiadin (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) is comparable to mefenamic acid (30 mg/kg, i.p.) as the standard drug. Rubiadin was effective in granuloma induced by cotton pellet concerning the granuloma and transudate formation amount. Rubiadin's anti-inflammatory effects were associated with a significant IL-1β decrease in this model. The results suggest that Rubiadin as a natural compound can possess significant peripheral anti-inflammatory impacts.

Investigation of Wound Healing and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Leaf Gel of Aloe trigonantha L.C. Leach in Rats

BACKGROUND

Traditionally Aloe trigonantha leaf is used for the treatment of different diseases. However, there were no in vivo studies which prove its claimed use for wound healing and anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, the present study aimed at evaluating the in vivo wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects of the leaf gel of the plant in rats.

METHODS

The leaf gel powder of the Aloe trigonantha was prepared after the gel gets lyophilized. It was evaluated for wound healing activity topically by incorporating it in a simple ointment base at a concentration of 5% (w/w) and 10% (w/w). Excision and incision models were used for wound healing activity in rats. For the excision wound model, wound contraction and period of epithelialization were evaluated, while wound tensile strength was evaluated using an incision wound model. A Xylene-induced ear edema model and cotton pellet-induced granuloma model were used for anti-inflammatory study. The leaf gel powder of Aloe trigonantha was given orally at a dose of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg in both models of anti-inflammatory studies. An anti-inflammatory effect was measured by reduction of ear edema weight and reduction of wet exudate and dry granuloma weight in both of xylene-induced ear edema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma models, respectively.

RESULTS

Treatment of wounds with ointment containing 5% and 10% (w/w) of the gel exhibited a significantly increased wound contraction rate, shorter epithelialization time, and higher skin breaking strength (p<0.05) compared to controls. Aloe trigonantha leaf gel powder also produced dose-dependent significant reductions (p<0.05) of inflammation compared to control in both models.

CONCLUSION

Data obtained from this study collectively indicated that Aloe trigonantha is a potential wound-healing and anti-inflammatory agent in rat models of wound and inflammation which provides evidence for the traditional claim.

Study of Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity of Scorpion Toxins DKK-SP1/2 from Scorpion Buthus martensii Karsch (BmK)

Buthus martensii Karsch (BmK), is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine, which has been used for a long history for the treatment of many diseases, such as inflammation, pain and cancer. In this study, DKK-SP1/2/3 genes were screened and extracted from the cDNA library of BmK. The DKK-SP1/2/3 were expressed by using plasmid pSYPU-1b in E. coli BL21, and recombinant proteins were obtained by column chromatography. In the xylene-induced mouse ear swelling and carrageenan-induced rat paw swelling model, DKK-SP1 exerted a significant anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the expression of Nav1.8 channel. Meanwhile, the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (COX-2, IL-6) was decreased significantly and the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) were elevated significantly. Moreover, DKK-SP1 could significantly decrease the Nav1.8 current in acutely isolated rat DRG neurons. In the acetic acid-writhing and ION-CCI model, DKK-SP2 displayed significant analgesic activity by inhibiting the expression of the Nav1.7 channel. Moreover, DKK-SP2 could significantly inhibit the Nav1.7 current in the hNav1.7-CHO cells.

Quantification of prostaglandins E2 and D2 using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in a mouse ear edema model

A sensitive, specific, and accurate high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the quantification of prostaglandins D2 (PGD2) and E2 (PGE2) in a mouse ear edema model. We used activated charcoal to obtain PG-free ear samples. The chromatographic separation was performed using a Hypersil Gold C18 column. The limit of detection of each PG was 0.4 ng mL-1, and the intra- and inter-assay estimates of precision and accuracy were <14.5 and 94.2-102.9%, respectively. Stability studies showed that all analytes were stable under various storage conditions and analytical processes. The developed and validated method was successfully used to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of cultured bear bile powder (CBBP) by quantitatively determining PGE2 and PGD2 levels in mouse ear edema samples. These results showed that CBBP significantly inhibited the xylene-induced ear edema in mice and reversed the xylene-induced elevation of PGE2 and PGD2 levels. These results provide useful data about the anti-inflammatory bioactivities in tissues, mediated by the reduction of PGE2 and PGD2 levels, and may further encourage research and development studies of CBBP for its use as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Iridoid glycosides from Morinda officinalis How. exert anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects through inactivating MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways

Background

The root of Morinda officinalis How. (MO, the family of Rubiaceae) has long been used to treat inflammatory diseases in China and other eastern Asian countries, and iridoid glycosides extracted from MO (MOIG) are believed to contribute to this anti-inflammatory effect. However, the mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities of MOIG has not been elucidated. The aim of the present study was to determine how MOIG exerted anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects in vivo and in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Methods

MOIG were enriched by XDA-1 macroporous resin. The maximum feasible dose method was adopted to evaluate its acute toxicity. The analgesic effect of MOIG was evaluated by acetic acid writhing test and the anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by cotton-pellet granuloma test in rats and air pouch granuloma test in mice. The anti-arthritic effect was evaluated by establishing an adjuvant arthritis model induced by Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA). The viability of the cultured RAW 264.7 macrophages was assessed by 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by measuring NO, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α levels in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The protein level of inflammatory responsive genes was evaluated by Western blot analysis.

Results

MOIG had no significant toxicity at maximum feasible dose of 22.5 g/kg. MO extracts and MOIG (50,100 and 200 mg/kg) all evoked a significantly inhibitory effects on the frequency of twisting induced by acetic acid in mice compared with the model control group. Administration of MO extracts and MOIG markedly decreased the dry and wet weight of cotton pellet granuloma in rats and air pouch granuloma in mice. MOIG significantly attenuated the paw swelling and decreased the arthritic score, weight loss, spleen index, and the serum level of inflammatory factors IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17a in CFA-induced arthritic rats. MOIG inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, and the expressions of iNOS, COX-2 and proteins related to MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Conclusion

MOIG exerted anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities through inactivating MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways, and this finding may provide a sound experimental basis for the clinical treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with MOIG.

Comparison of anti-inflammatory effects of berberine, and its natural oxidative and reduced derivatives from Rhizoma Coptidis in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Berberine (BBR) is the most abundant and major active constituent of Rhizoma Coptidis (RC), which has been widely used to treat inflammatory diseases in traditional oriental medicine. Despite BBR has been found to exhibit pronounced anti-inflammatory effect, the anti-inflammatory activities of its natural derivatives were sparsely dissected out.

PURPOSE

To comparatively investigate the anti-inflammatory potential of BBR, and its natural oxoderivative (oxyberberine, OBB) and reduced derivative (dihydroberberine, DHBB) in vitro and in vivo, and delineate the possible underlying mechanism.

METHODS

LC-MS/MS was used to identify the natural derivatives of BBR in RC. The potential anti-inflammatory properties of BBR and its natural derivatives were comparatively evaluated in vitro by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages cells, and in vivo via three typical acute inflammation murine models. Some important inflammation-related molecules were analyzed by ELISA, qRT-PCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

LC-MS/MS led to the identification of BBR, OBB and DHBB in RC ethyl acetate extract. The in vitro assay indicated that BBR, OBB and DHBB (1.25, 2.5 and 5 μM) pretreatment significantly decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), prostaglandinE2 (PGE₂) and nitricoxide (NO), and inhibited the mRNA expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitricoxide synthase (iNOS) in a dose-dependent manner, with relative efficiency of OBB > BBR > DHBB. Furthermore, OBB, BBR and DHBB remarkably inhibited the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 and inhibitory kappa Bα (IκBα). In vivo, BBR (20 mg/kg) and OBB (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) pretreatment significantly ameliorated the xylene-induced ear edema, carrageenan-stimulated paw edema, and acetic acid-elicited vascular permeability in mice in a dose-dependent manner, with OBB exhibiting superior anti-inflammatory effect at the same dose (20 mg/kg). Histopathological analysis indicated that OBB and BBR could markedly attenuate the inflammatory deterioration and decrease the cellular infiltration in paw tissues. Additionally, the carrageenan-induced increases in TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, PGE₂ and NO productions, and COX-2 and iNOS mRNA expressions were effectually and concentration-dependently suppressed by OBB and BBR pretreatment.

CONCLUSION

The anti-inflammatory activity of BBR and its natural derivatives was in the order of OBB > BBR > DHBB. OBB was for the first time found to be endowed with pronounced anti-inflammatory property, which was probably associated with suppressing the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway, and the subsequent gene expressions and productions of pro-inflammatory mediators. The results might contribute to illuminating the pharmacodynamic underpinnings of RC and provide evidence for developing OBB as a safe and promising natural lead compound in inflammation treatment.

Curcumin's Metabolites, Tetrahydrocurcumin and Octahydrocurcumin, Possess Superior Anti-inflammatory Effects in vivo Through Suppression of TAK1-NF-κB Pathway

Curcumin (CUR), a promising naturally occurring dietary compound, is commonly recognized as the potential anti-inflammatory agent. While the application of CUR was hampered by its low stability and poor systemic bioavailability, it has been suggested that the biological activities of CUR are intimately related to its metabolites. In the current investigation, we aimed to comparatively explore the anti-inflammatory effects of tetrahydrocurcumin (THC), octahydrocurcumin (OHC), and CUR, and to elucidate the underlying action mechanisms on experimental mice models of acute inflammation, i.e., xylene-induced ear edema, acetic acid-induced vascular permeability, and carrageenan-induced paw edema. The results showed that THC and OHC exerted significant and dose-dependent inhibitions on the formation of ear edema induced by xylene and paw edema provoked by carrageenan and inhibited the Evans blue dye leakage in peritoneal cavity elicited by acetic acid. Moreover, THC and OHC treatments were more effective than CUR in selectively inhibiting the expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and suppressing nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways via transforming growth factor β activated kinase-1 (TAK1) inactivation in the carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema model.

Screening of analgesic activity of Tunisian Urtica dioica and analysis of its major bioactive compounds by GCMS

The present study was aimed to evaluate the analgesic properties of Urtica dioica (UD) and to profile phytochemicals by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The ethanolic extracts were prepared by maceration method and extraction using rotary evaporator. The analgesic activity was analysed by hot plate method, formalin test, acetic acid-induced writhing test and the tail-flick test with different doses of the ethanolic extract. In all tests, the leaf's ethanolic extract exhibited significant analgesic activity (p < .001) at a dose of 400 mg/kg. Even with a low dose, we noticed an analgesic activity with many tests. The GC-MS analysis of the ethanol extract of leaf revealed many compounds; 2-methyltetradecane dodecane, 2,6,11-trimethyl-; 2,6,11-trimethyldodecane, and trimethylhexane which are pharmaceutically the most important. These findings justify that UD can be a valuable natural analgesic source which seemed to provide potential phototherapeutics against various ailments. The analysis of ethanolic extract of UD by GCMS revealed the presence of several compounds including polyphenols, flavonoids, triterpenes which can explain the analgesic effect of UD and its mechanism of action. Hence, UD could be another therapeutic alternative for relieving pain and for minimising the use of drugs that have long-term secondary effects.

The inhibitory effects of compound Muniziqi granule against B16 cells and harmine induced autophagy and apoptosis by inhibiting Akt/mTOR pathway

Background

Compound Muniziqi granule (MNZQ) is a multi-component herbal preparation and a popular traditional Uighur medicine used in China for treating endocrine disorder-induced acne, chloasma, dysmenorrhea, menopausal syndrome, and melanoma. Harmine presented in MNZQ has been confirmed potential anticancer effect on the B16 cells among others. The purpose of this study is to explore the inhibitory effects of MNZQ against B16 cells and mechanism of autophagy and apoptosis induced by harmine in B16 cells.

Methods

The cell viability was calculated by CCK8 assay. The in vitro tyrosinase activity was determined by spectrophotometry. The harmine-induced autophagy was demonstrated by electron microscopy and MDC staining. Flow cytometry was used to measure cell death and cell cycle distribution. All proteins expression was assessed by western blot.

Results

MNZQ and some herb extracts contained in preparation displayed inhibitory effects on B16 cells but without inhibition on mushroom tyrosinase compared with kojic acid. The formation of autophagosome was markedly induced by harmine with the accretion of LC3-II and the degeneration of p62 in B16 cells, which indicated that harmine was an autophagy inducer. Cell death and sub-G2 population suggested that harmine could induce cell death. Particularly, 3-MA, an autophagy inhibitor, was discovered to prevent harmine-induced decrease of the cell viability and cell cycle arrest on G2 phase, indicating that autophagy was vital to the cell death. In addition, the results indicated that harmine could inhibit the phosphorylation of Akt and mTOR, which might mediate autophagy.

Conclusion

Harmine could induce autophagy and apoptosis by inhibiting Akt/mTOR pathway in B16 cells. Harmine might be a promising therapeutic agent for treatment of melanoma in MNZQ.

Maydis Stigma Elicits Analgesia and Blocks Edema in Mice and Inhibits Inflammation in Macrophages

Maydis Stigma (MS) is an herb traditionally used in many parts of the world. Previous studies have reported that MS plays a role in several biological activities, including antidiabetic and anticancer activities. However, the effects of a MS ethanolic extract (MSE) on the anti-inflammatory cellular mechanism remain unclear. Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of MSE and its molecular mechanism both in vitro and in vivo. The effects of MSE on the production of inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and related proteins and the identification of target genes were determined using LPS-stimulated macrophages. We also determined the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of MSE by examining acetic acid-induced writhing responses and xylene-induced ear edema in mice. Our results indicated that MSE markedly decreased iNOS and COX-2 levels without causing cytotoxicity and suppressed the secretion of NO in LPS-stimulated macrophages. MSE also inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-[Formula: see text], IL-6, and IL-1[Formula: see text], and induced the expression of HO-1. Moreover, MSE treatment significantly reduced the LPS-stimulated activation of MAPK, NF-[Formula: see text]B, and AP-1. Furthermore, MSE exerted an analgesic effect on the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing response test and an anti-inflammatory effect on xylene-induced ear edema in ICR mice. Finally, we investigated the components of MSE using UPLC-ESI-MS and found that it contains the maysin as a marker component. Overall, these observations demonstrate that MSE has anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects both in vitro and in vivo, which may provide new scientific evidence for its use as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammation.

Patchoulene Epoxide Isolated from Patchouli Oil Suppresses Acute Inflammation through Inhibition of NF-κB and Downregulation of COX-2/iNOS

According to the GC-MS analysis, compositional variation was observed between samples of patchouli oil, of which an unknown compound identified as patchoulene epoxide (PAO) was found only in the long-stored oil, whose biological activity still remains unknown. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory activity with three in vivo inflammatory models: xylene-induced ear edema, acetic acid-induced vascular permeability, and carrageenan-induced paw edema. Further investigation into its underlying mechanism on carrageenan-induced paw edema was conducted. Results demonstrated that PAO significantly inhibited the ear edema induced by xylene, lowered vascular permeability induced by acetic acid and decreased the paw edema induced by carrageenan. Moreover, PAO markedly decreased levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), and nitric oxide (NO), but increased levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-10 (IL-10). PAO was also shown to significantly downregulate the protein and mRNA expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS). Western blot analysis revealed that PAO remarkably inhibited p50 and p65 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus by suppressing IKKβ and IκBα phosphorylation. In conclusion, PAO exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity probably by suppressing the activation of iNOS, COX-2 and NF-κB signaling pathways.