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Rafique S, Jabeen Z, Pervaiz T, Rashid F, Luo S, Xie L, Xie Z. Avian infectious bronchitis virus (AIBV) review by continent. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1325346. [PMID: 38375362 PMCID: PMC10875066 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1325346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a positive-sense, single-stranded, enveloped RNA virus responsible for substantial economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide by causing a highly contagious respiratory disease. The virus can spread quickly through contact, contaminated equipment, aerosols, and personal-to-person contact. We highlight the prevalence and geographic distribution of all nine genotypes, as well as the relevant symptoms and economic impact, by extensively analyzing the current literature. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis was performed using Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA-6), which provided insights into the global molecular diversity and evolution of IBV strains. This review highlights that IBV genotype I (GI) is prevalent worldwide because sporadic cases have been found on many continents. Conversely, GII was identified as a European strain that subsequently dispersed throughout Europe and South America. GIII and GV are predominant in Australia, with very few reports from Asia. GIV, GVIII, and GIX originate from North America. GIV was found to circulate in Asia, and GVII was identified in Europe and China. Geographically, the GVI-1 lineage is thought to be restricted to Asia. This review highlights that IBV still often arises in commercial chicken flocks despite immunization and biosecurity measures because of the ongoing introduction of novel IBV variants and inadequate cross-protection provided by the presently available vaccines. Consequently, IB consistently jeopardizes the ability of the poultry industry to grow and prosper. Identifying these domains will aid in discerning the pathogenicity and prevalence of IBV genotypes, potentially enhancing disease prevention and management tactics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saba Rafique
- SB Diagnostic Laboratory, Sadiq Poultry Pvt. Ltd., Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Zohra Jabeen
- SB Diagnostic Laboratory, Sadiq Poultry Pvt. Ltd., Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Treeza Pervaiz
- SB Diagnostic Laboratory, Sadiq Poultry Pvt. Ltd., Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Farooq Rashid
- Department of Biotechnology, Guangxi Veterinary Research Institute, Nanning, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of China (Guangxi)-ASEAN Cross-border Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, Nanning, China
| | - Sisi Luo
- Department of Biotechnology, Guangxi Veterinary Research Institute, Nanning, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of China (Guangxi)-ASEAN Cross-border Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, Nanning, China
| | - Liji Xie
- Department of Biotechnology, Guangxi Veterinary Research Institute, Nanning, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of China (Guangxi)-ASEAN Cross-border Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, Nanning, China
| | - Zhixun Xie
- Department of Biotechnology, Guangxi Veterinary Research Institute, Nanning, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of China (Guangxi)-ASEAN Cross-border Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, Nanning, China
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Yadav JP, Tomar P, Singh Y, Khurana SK. Insights on Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae infection in poultry: a systematic review. Anim Biotechnol 2022; 33:1711-1720. [PMID: 33840372 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2021.1908316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Avian mycoplasmosis mainly caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae is an economically important disease of poultry industry. It causes huge economic losses in terms of decrease in weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, egg production, hatchability; increase in embryo mortality, carcass condemnation, prophylaxis and treatment cost in broiler, layer and breeder flocks. The disease is caused by four major pathogenic mycoplasmas viz., M. gallisepticum (MG), M. synoviae (MS), M. meleagradis (MM) and M. iowae (MI). The MG and MS are World Organization for Animal Health listed respiratory pathogens. MG causes chronic respiratory disease in chicken and infectious sinusitis in turkey; however, MS causes synovitis and airsacculitis in birds. The infection is transmitted both horizontally and vertically. Prevention and control measures of avian mycoplasmosis mainly comprises of biosecurity, treatment and vaccination. For vaccination of birds, inactivated bacterins, live attenuated and/or recombinant live poxvirus vaccines are commercially available against MG and MS infection. The present systematic review summarizes the different epidemiological studies carried out on MG and MS infection in poultry in different geographical locations of India and abroad over the last decade (2010-2020), economic impact, diagnosis and prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Prakash Yadav
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, India
| | - Piyush Tomar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, India
| | - Yarvendra Singh
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, India
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Xia W, Chen K, Liu W, Yin Y, Yao Q, Ban Y, Pu Y, Zhan X, Bian H, Yu S, Han K, Yang L, Wang H, Fan Z. Rapid and visual detection of Mycoplasma synoviae by recombinase-aided amplification assay combined with a lateral flow dipstick. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101860. [PMID: 35537343 PMCID: PMC9118145 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.101860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) is an important avian pathogen that has brought substantial economic losses to the global poultry industry. Fast and accurate diagnosis is one of the critical factors for the control of MS infection. This study established a simple, rapid and visual detection method for MS using a recombinase-aided amplification (RAA) combined with a lateral flow dipstick (LFD). The reaction temperature and time of the RAA-LFD assay were optimized after selecting the primers and probe, and the specificity and sensitivity rates were analyzed. The results showed that RAA could amplify the target gene in 20 min at a constant temperature of 38°C, and the amplification products could be visualized by LFD within 5 min. There was no cross-reaction with Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida), Escherichia coli (E. coli), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), and avian reovirus (ARV). Furthermore, the RAA-LFD assay exhibited high sensitivity with a detection limit of 10 copies/μL. A total of 128 clinical samples with suspected infection of MS were tested by RAA-LFD, PCR, and real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (RFQ-PCR). The coincidence rate of the detection results was 95.3% between RAA-LFD and PCR, and 98.4% between RAA-LFD and RFQ-PCR. These results suggested that the RAA-LFD method established in the present study was easy to use and was associated with strong specificity and high sensitivity. This method was very suitable for the rapid detection of MS in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlong Xia
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Ke Chen
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Wensong Liu
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Yan Yin
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Qian Yao
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Yu Ban
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Yiwen Pu
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Xingmin Zhan
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Hongchun Bian
- Yancheng Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Station, Yancheng 224001, China
| | - Shupei Yu
- Yancheng Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Station, Yancheng 224001, China
| | - Kunpeng Han
- Yancheng Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Station, Yancheng 224001, China
| | - Ling Yang
- Yancheng Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Station, Yancheng 224001, China
| | - Huanli Wang
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China
| | - Zhongjun Fan
- Yancheng Engineering Research Center of Animal Biologics, College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Yancheng 224002, China.
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Bhuiyan MSA, Amin Z, Bakar AMSA, Saallah S, Yusuf NHM, Shaarani SM, Siddiquee S. Factor Influences for Diagnosis and Vaccination of Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus (Gammacoronavirus) in Chickens. Vet Sci 2021; 8:47. [PMID: 33809420 PMCID: PMC8001924 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8030047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a major economic problem in commercial chicken farms with acute multiple-system infection, especially in respiratory and urogenital systems. A live-attenuated and killed vaccine is currently immunized to control IBV infection; however, repeated outbreaks occur in both unvaccinated and vaccinated birds due to the choice of inadequate vaccine candidates and continuous emergence of novel infectious bronchitis (IB) variants and failure of vaccination. However, similar clinical signs were shown in different respiratory diseases that are essential to improving the diagnostic assay to detect IBV infections. Various risk factors involved in the failure of IB vaccination, such as various routes of application of vaccination, the interval between vaccinations, and challenge with various possible immunosuppression of birds are reviewed. The review article also highlights and updates factors affecting the diagnosis of IBV disease in the poultry industry with differential diagnosis to find the nature of infections compared with non-IBV diseases. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the common reasons for failed IBV vaccinations with preventive action, and proper diagnostic facilities for identifying the infective stage, leading to earlier control and reduced economic losses from IBV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md. Safiul Alam Bhuiyan
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jln UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; (M.S.A.B.); (Z.A.); (S.S.); (N.H.M.Y.)
| | - Zarina Amin
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jln UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; (M.S.A.B.); (Z.A.); (S.S.); (N.H.M.Y.)
| | - Ag Muhammad Sagaf Abu Bakar
- Jabatan Perkhidmatan Veterinar Sabah, Makamal Diagnosa Veterinar Kota Kinabalu, Peti Surat No 59, Tanjung Aru 89457, Sabah, Malaysia;
| | - Suryani Saallah
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jln UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; (M.S.A.B.); (Z.A.); (S.S.); (N.H.M.Y.)
| | - Noor Hydayaty Md. Yusuf
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jln UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; (M.S.A.B.); (Z.A.); (S.S.); (N.H.M.Y.)
| | - Sharifudin Md. Shaarani
- Food Biotechnology Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Bandar Baru Nilai, Nilai 71800, Negeri, Malaysia;
| | - Shafiquzzaman Siddiquee
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jln UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; (M.S.A.B.); (Z.A.); (S.S.); (N.H.M.Y.)
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Win SY, Chel HM, Hmoon MM, Htun LL, Bawm S, Win MM, Murata S, Nonaka N, Nakao R, Katakura K. Detection and molecular identification of Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium species from village chickens in different areas of Myanmar. Acta Trop 2020; 212:105719. [PMID: 32976841 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Village chicken production, a traditional, small-scale, and extensive backyard poultry industry, has been profitable for local farmers in Myanmar. However, there is scanty information available concerning the infection of these chickens with avian pathogens, including haemoprotozoan parasites. In the present study, we provide the first report of microscopic detection and molecular identification of Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium parasites from seven different areas of Myanmar. Leucocytozoon gametocytes were detected in 17.6% (81/461) of the blood smears from village chickens. The nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for targeting Leucocytozoon mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) genes had a 17.6% positive rate. Although the positive rate of nested PCR targeting Plasmodium/Haemoproteus cyt b was 34.3%, the PCR protocol was observed to possibly amplify DNA of a certain species of Leucocytozoon. There were no obvious clinical signs in the infected birds. Statistical analysis of the microscopic detection and PCR detection rates using the age and sex of birds as internal factors revealed that the statistical significances differed according to the study area. The sequencing of 32 PCR products obtained from each study area revealed infection by Leucocytozoon caulleryi in three birds, Leucocytozoon sabrazesi in two birds, Leucocytozoon schoutedeni in two birds, Leucocytozoon sp. in eighteen birds, and Plasmodium juxtanucleare in seven birds; however, Haemoproteus infection was not detected. While L. sabrazesi was detected in chickens from the central region of Myanmar, the other haemosporidians were detected in those from different areas. In the haplotype analysis, we detected 17 haemosporidian cyt b haplotypes, including two for L. caulleryi, one for L. sabrazesi, two for L. schoutedeni, nine for Leucocytozoon sp., and three for P. juxtanucleare. Phylogenetic analysis of the cyt b haplotypes revealed a considerably close genetic relationship among chicken haemosporidians detected in Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia. These results indicate that well-recognized widespread species of chicken Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium are distributed nationwide in Myanmar, providing new insights into the ecosystem and control strategies of haemosporidian parasites in domesticated chickens in Myanmar.
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Yang Z, Murata S, Fujisawa S, Takehara M, Katakura K, Hmoon MM, Win SY, Bawm S, Konnai S, Ohashi K. Molecular detection and genetic characterization of infectious laryngotracheitis virus in poultry in Myanmar. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:453. [PMID: 33228640 PMCID: PMC7685572 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02666-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Avian infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is a highly contagious viral disease that causes severe economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide. In Southeast Asian countries, including Myanmar, poultry farming is a major industry. Although it is known that infectious respiratory pathogens, including infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV), are a major threat to poultry farms, there are no data currently available on the epidemiology of ILTV in Myanmar. Therefore, in this study, we conducted a molecular detection of ILTV in 20 poultry farms in Myanmar. RESULTS Of the 57 tested oropharyngeal swabs, 10 were positive for ILTV by polymerase chain reaction of a 647 bp region of the thymidine kinase (TK) gene, giving a prevalence of ILTV of 17.5% (10/57). Further sequencing analysis of infected cell protein 4 (ICP4) gene and glycoprotein B, G, and J (gB, gG, and gJ) genes indicated that these isolates were field strains. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Myanmar strains clustered together in a single branch and were closely related to other reference strains isolated from Asian countries. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the presence of ILTV in poultry farms in Myanmar. The genetic characterization analysis performed provides the fundamental data for epidemiological studies that monitor circulating strains of ILTV in Myanmar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Yang
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shiro Murata
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Sotaro Fujisawa
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Masaki Takehara
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ken Katakura
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | | | - Shwe Yee Win
- University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
| | - Saw Bawm
- University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
| | - Satoru Konnai
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Ohashi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Van NTB, Yen NTP, Nhung NT, Cuong NV, Kiet BT, Hoang NV, Hien VB, Chansiripornchai N, Choisy M, Ribas A, Campbell J, Thwaites G, Carrique-Mas J. Characterization of viral, bacterial, and parasitic causes of disease in small-scale chicken flocks in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Poult Sci 2019; 99:783-790. [PMID: 32036978 PMCID: PMC7587710 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2019.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam, small-scale chicken farming is common. However, high levels of disease or mortality in such flocks impair economic development and challenge the livelihoods of many rural households. We investigated 61 diseased small-scale flocks (122 chickens) for evidence of infection with 5 bacteria, 4 viruses, and helminths. Serological profiles (ELISA) were also determined against 6 of these pathogens. The aims of this study were the following: (1) to investigate the prevalence of different pathogens and to compare the probability of detection of bacterial pathogens using PCR and culture; (2) to investigate the relationship between detection of organisms in birds' tissues and the observed morbidity and mortality, as well as their antibody profile; and (3) to characterize risk factors for infection with specific viral or bacterial pathogens. We used PCR to test for viral (viruses causing infectious bronchitis [IB], highly pathogenic avian influenza [HPAI], Newcastle disease, and infectious bursal disease [IBD]) and bacterial pathogens (Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Pasteurella multocida, Avibacterium paragallinarum, and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale [ORT]). The latter two were also investigated in respiratory tissues by conventional culture. Colisepticemic Escherichia coli was investigated by liver or spleen culture. In 49 of 61 (80.3%) flocks, at least one bacterial or viral pathogen was detected, and in 29 (47.5%) flocks, more than one pathogen was detected. A. paragallinarum was detected in 62.3% flocks, followed by M. gallisepticum (26.2%), viruses causing IBD (24.6%) and IB (21.3%), septicemic E. coli (14.8%), ORT (13.1%), and HPAI viruses (4.9%). Of all flocks, 67.2% flocks were colonized by helminths. Mortality was highest among flocks infected with HPAI (100%, interquartile range [IQR]: 81.6–100%) and lowest with flocks infected with ORT (5.3%, IQR: 1.1–9.0%). The results indicated slight agreement (kappa ≤ 0.167) between detection by PCR and culture for both A. paragallinarum and ORT, as well as between the presence of cestodes and ORT infection (kappa = 0.317). Control of A. paragallinarum, viruses causing HPAI, IBD, and IB, M. gallisepticum, and gastrointestinal helminths should be a priority in small-scale flocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Thi Bich Van
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
| | - Nguyen Thi Phuong Yen
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Thi Nhung
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Van Cuong
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Bach Tuan Kiet
- Sub-Department of Animal Health, Dong Thap Province, Cao Lanh, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Van Hoang
- Sub-Department of Animal Health, Dong Thap Province, Cao Lanh, Vietnam
| | - Vo Be Hien
- Sub-Department of Animal Health, Dong Thap Province, Cao Lanh, Vietnam
| | - Niwat Chansiripornchai
- Avian Health Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
| | - Marc Choisy
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hanoi, Vietnam; MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Alexis Ribas
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - James Campbell
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Guy Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Carrique-Mas
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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