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Li C, Song Y, Meng X. The Role of Macrophages in Nerve Regeneration: Polarization and Combination with Tissue Engineering. TISSUE ENGINEERING. PART B, REVIEWS 2024. [PMID: 38832865 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2024.0100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Peripheral nerve regeneration after trauma poses a substantial clinical challenge that has already been investigated for many years. Infiltration of immune cells is a critical step in the response to nerve damage that creates a supportive microenvironment for regeneration. In this work, we focus on a special type of immune cell, macrophage, in addressing the problem of neuronal regeneration. We discuss the complex endogenous mechanisms of peripheral nerve injury and regrowth vis-à-vis macrophages, including their recruitment, polarization, and interplay with Schwann cells post-trauma. Furthermore, we also elucidate the underlying mechanisms by which exogenous stimuli govern the above events. Finally, we summarize the necessary roles of macrophages in peripheral nerve lesions and reconstruction. There are many challenges in controlling macrophage functions to achieve complete neuronal regeneration even though considerable progress has been made in understanding the connection between these cells and peripheral nerve damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changqing Li
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China;
| | - Yuanyu Song
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China;
| | - Xianyu Meng
- First Clinical Medical College of Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Orthopedics, No. 26, Heping Road, Xiangfang District,, Harbin, AK, China, 150006;
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Liu X, Lv J, Tang W, Hu Y, Wen Y, Shen H. METTL3-mediated maturation of miR-192-5p targets ATG7 to prevent Schwann cell autophagy in peripheral nerve injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2023; 82:1010-1019. [PMID: 37964653 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlad091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The inhibition of miR-192-5p can promote nerve repair in rats with peripheral nerve injury (PNI) but the precise mechanisms underlying this effect remain unclear. Schwann cell (SC) autophagy mediated by autophagy-related gene (ATG) proteins has a key role in PNI but it is uncertain whether miR-192-5p affects the involvement of SC autophagy in PNI. In this study, we investigated the impact of methyltransferase-like protein 3 (METTL3)/miR-192-5p/ATG7 on SC autophagy in a rat PNI model and in an SC oxygen and glucose deprivation model. The results revealed that METTL3 stimulated miR-192-5p maturation via m6A methylation to depress ATG7 and SC autophagy and aggravate PNI. These findings provide a new target and potential basis for the treatment of patients with PNI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
| | - Jun Lv
- Department of Orthopaedics, Heilongjiang Beidahuang Group General Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
| | - Weilong Tang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
| | - Yuanbai Hu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
| | - Yiwei Wen
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
| | - Hongtao Shen
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, P.R. China
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Zhang WJ, Liu SC, Ming LG, Yu JW, Zuo C, Hu DX, Luo HL, Zhang Q. Potential role of Schwann cells in neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 956:175955. [PMID: 37541365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain (NPP) is a common syndrome associated with most forms of disease, which poses a serious threat to human health. NPP may persist even after the nociceptive stimulation is eliminated, and treatment is extremely challenging in such cases. Schwann cells (SCs) form the myelin sheaths around neuronal axons and play a crucial role in neural information transmission. SCs can secrete trophic factors to nourish and protect axons, and can further secrete pain-related factors to induce pain. SCs may be activated by peripheral nerve injury, triggering the transformation of myelinated and non-myelinated SCs into cell phenotypes that specifically promote repair. These differentiated SCs provide necessary signals and spatial clues for survival, axonal regeneration, and nerve regeneration of damaged neurons. They can further change the microenvironment around the regions of nerve injury, and relieve the pain by repairing the injured nerve. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of the biological characteristics of SCs, discuss the relationship between SCs and nerve injury, and explore the potential mechanism of SCs and the occurrence of NPP. Moreover, we summarize the feasible strategies of SCs in the treatment of NPP, and attempt to elucidate the deficiencies and defects of SCs in the treatment of NPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Jun Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Si-Cheng Liu
- Department of Gastrointestinal surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Li-Guo Ming
- Department of Gastrointestinal surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Jian-Wen Yu
- Department of Gastrointestinal surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Cheng Zuo
- Department of Gastrointestinal surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Dong-Xia Hu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Hong-Liang Luo
- Department of Gastrointestinal surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China.
| | - Qiao Zhang
- Orthopedics Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China.
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Liu C, Liu D, Zhang X, Hui L, Zhao L. Nanofibrous polycaprolactone/amniotic membrane facilitates peripheral nerve regeneration by promoting macrophage polarization and regulating inflammatory microenvironment. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 121:110507. [PMID: 37356125 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Appropriate levels of inflammation are an important part of functional repair of nerve damage. However, excessive inflammation can cause the continuous activation of immune inflammatory cells and degeneration of nerve cells. Regulating the temporal and spatial changes in M1/M2 macrophages can regulate the local inflammatory immune environment of the tissue to promote its transformation to a direction conducive to tissue repair.In the present study, a multi-layer multifunctional nanofiber composite membrane of polycaprolactone(PCL) and amniotic membrane (AM) was constructed using electrospinning. In vitro studies have shown that the PCL/AM composite promoted the axon growth of SH-SY5Y cells and induced their differentiation into neurons. The PCL/AM composite wrapped the nerve stump to form a microenvironment that was conducive to nerve regeneration, blocked the invasion of scar tissue, promoted the recruitment of macrophages and moderate polarization to M2, enhanced the expression of anti-inflammatory factors IL-10 and IL-13, inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α, and induced myelin sheath and axon regeneration. By releasing various bioactive substances to regulate the polarization of M2 macrophages and formation of anti-inflammatory factors, the PCL/AM composite can enhance axonal regeneration and improve nerve repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjie Liu
- Xingtai People's Hospital Postdoctoral Workstation, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China; Postdoctoral Mobile Station, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China; Department of Orthopedics, Tangshan Workers Hospital, Tangshan 063000, China
| | - Dengxiang Liu
- Institute of Cancer Control, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China; Xingtai Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Liver Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China
| | - Xiaochong Zhang
- Department of Research and Education, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China
| | - Limin Hui
- Department of Gynecology, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China
| | - Lili Zhao
- Xingtai People's Hospital Postdoctoral Workstation, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China; Department of Orthopedics, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China.
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Han L, Dong X, Qiu T, Dou Z, Wu L, Dai H. Enhanced sciatic nerve regeneration by relieving iron-overloading and organelle stress with the nanofibrous P(MMD-co-LA)/DFO conduits. Mater Today Bio 2022; 16:100387. [PMID: 36042854 PMCID: PMC9420382 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Wallerian degeneration after peripheral nerve injury (PNI), that is, the autonomous degeneration of distal axons, leads to an imbalance of iron homeostasis and easily induces oxidative stress caused by iron overload. Inspired by the process of nerve degeneration and regeneration, the design of a functional electrospinning scaffold with iron chelating ability exhibited the importance of reconstructing a suitable microenvironment. Here, an electrospinning scaffold based on deferoxamine and poly(3(S)-methyl-morpholine-2,5-dione-co-lactone) (PDPLA/DFO) was constructed. This work aims to explore the promotion of nerve regeneration by the physiological regulation of the scaffold. In vitro, PDPLA/DFO films mitigated the reduction of glutathione and the inactivation of Glutathione peroxidase 4 caused by iron overload. In addition, they decreased reactive oxygen species, relieve the stress of the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, and reduce cell apoptosis. In vivo, PDPLA/DFO conduits constructed the anti-inflammatory microenvironment and promoted cell survival by alleviating iron overload and organelle stress. In conclusion, PDPLA/DFO guidance conduits targeted the distal iron overload and promoted nerve regeneration. It provides novel ideas for designing nerve conduits targeting the distal microenvironment.
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Lopes B, Sousa P, Alvites R, Branquinho M, Sousa AC, Mendonça C, Atayde LM, Luís AL, Varejão ASP, Maurício AC. Peripheral Nerve Injury Treatments and Advances: One Health Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020918. [PMID: 35055104 PMCID: PMC8779751 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries (PNI) can have several etiologies, such as trauma and iatrogenic interventions, that can lead to the loss of structure and/or function impairment. These changes can cause partial or complete loss of motor and sensory functions, physical disability, and neuropathic pain, which in turn can affect the quality of life. This review aims to revisit the concepts associated with the PNI and the anatomy of the peripheral nerve is detailed to explain the different types of injury. Then, some of the available therapeutic strategies are explained, including surgical methods, pharmacological therapies, and the use of cell-based therapies alone or in combination with biomaterials in the form of tube guides. Nevertheless, even with the various available treatments, it is difficult to achieve a perfect outcome with complete functional recovery. This review aims to enhance the importance of new therapies, especially in severe lesions, to overcome limitations and achieve better outcomes. The urge for new approaches and the understanding of the different methods to evaluate nerve regeneration is fundamental from a One Health perspective. In vitro models followed by in vivo models are very important to be able to translate the achievements to human medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Lopes
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Sousa
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui Alvites
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Mariana Branquinho
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Catarina Sousa
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Mendonça
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Luís Miguel Atayde
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Lúcia Luís
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Artur S. P. Varejão
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Ana Colette Maurício
- Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente (ICETA) da Universidade do Porto, Praça Gomes Teixeira, Apartado 55142, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal; (B.L.); (P.S.); (R.A.); (M.B.); (A.C.S.); (C.M.); (L.M.A.); (A.L.L.)
- Departamento de Clínicas Veterinárias, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-91-9071286
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Zhang F, Zhang M, Liu S, Li C, Ding Z, Wan T, Zhang P. Application of Hybrid Electrically Conductive Hydrogels Promotes Peripheral Nerve Regeneration. Gels 2022; 8:41. [PMID: 35049576 PMCID: PMC8775167 DOI: 10.3390/gels8010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) occurs frequently, and the prognosis is unsatisfactory. As the gold standard of treatment, autologous nerve grafting has several disadvantages, such as lack of donors and complications. The use of functional biomaterials to simulate the natural microenvironment of the nervous system and the combination of different biomaterials are considered to be encouraging alternative methods for effective tissue regeneration and functional restoration of injured nerves. Considering the inherent presence of an electric field in the nervous system, electrically conductive biomaterials have been used to promote nerve regeneration. Due to their singular physical properties, hydrogels can provide a three-dimensional hydrated network that can be integrated into diverse sizes and shapes and stimulate the natural functions of nerve tissue. Therefore, conductive hydrogels have become the most effective biological material to simulate human nervous tissue's biological and electrical characteristics. The principal merits of conductive hydrogels include their physical properties and their electrical peculiarities sufficient to effectively transmit electrical signals to cells. This review summarizes the recent applications of conductive hydrogels to enhance peripheral nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengshi Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Songyang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Ci Li
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Zhentao Ding
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Teng Wan
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Peixun Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics and Trauma, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China; (F.Z.); (M.Z.); (S.L.); (C.L.); (Z.D.); (T.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Trauma and Neural Regeneration, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100044, China
- National Center for Trauma Medicine, Beijing 100044, China
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Martinez-Usatorre A, De Palma M. Alzheimer's drug turns macrophages against cancer. NATURE CANCER 2021; 2:1119-1121. [PMID: 35122064 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-021-00284-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amaia Martinez-Usatorre
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Agora Cancer Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michele De Palma
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Agora Cancer Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
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