Topographical measures of functional connectivity as biomarkers for post-stroke motor recovery

Clinical and neurophysiological predictors of the functional outcome in right-hemisphere stroke

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study is to examine the relationship between EEG measures and functional recovery in right-hemisphere stroke patients.

METHODS

Participants with stroke (PS) and neurologically unimpaired controls (UC) were enrolled. At enrolment, all participants were assessed for motor and cognitive functioning with specific scales (motricity index, trunk control test, Level of Cognitive Functioning, and Functional Independence Measure (FIM). Moreover, EEG data were recorded. At discharge, participants were re-tested with the FIM RESULTS: Powers in the delta, theta, alpha, and beta bands and connectivity within the fronto-parietal network were compared between groups. Then, the between-group discriminative EEG measures and the motor/cognitive scales were used to feed a machine learning algorithm to predict FIM scores at discharge and the length of hospitalization (LoH). Higher delta, theta, and beta and impaired connectivity were found in PS compared to UC. Moreover, motor/cognitive functioning, beta power, and fronto-parietal connectivity predicted the FIM score at discharge and the LoH (accuracy=73.2 % and 85.2 % respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Results show that the integration of motor/cognitive scales and EEG measures can reveal the rehabilitative potentials of PS predicting their functional outcome and LoH.

SIGNIFICANCE

Synergistic clinical and electrophysiological models can support rehabilitative decision-making.

Neurophysiological characterization of stroke recovery: A longitudinal TMS and EEG study

AIMS

Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying stroke recovery is critical to determine effective interventions for stroke rehabilitation. This study aims to systematically explore how recovery mechanisms post-stroke differ between individuals with different levels of functional integrity of the ipsilesional corticomotor pathway and motor function.

METHODS

Eighty-one stroke survivors and 15 age-matched healthy adults participated in this study. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), electroencephalography (EEG), and concurrent TMS-EEG to investigate longitudinal neurophysiological changes post-stroke, and their relationship with behavioral changes. Subgroup analysis was performed based on the presence of paretic motor evoked potentials and motor function.

RESULTS

Functional connectivity was increased dramatically in low-functioning individuals without elicitable motor evoked potentials (MEPs), which showed a positive effect on motor recovery. Functional connectivity was increased gradually in higher-functioning individuals without elicitable MEP during stroke recovery and influence from the contralesional hemisphere played a key role in motor recovery. In individuals with elicitable MEPs, negative correlations between interhemispheric functional connectivity and motor function suggest that the influence from the contralesional hemisphere may be detrimental to motor recovery.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate prominent clinical implications for individualized stroke rehabilitation based on both functional integrity of the ipsilesional corticomotor pathway and motor function.

Brain oscillations in reflecting motor status and recovery induced by action observation-driven robotic hand intervention in chronic stroke

Hand rehabilitation in chronic stroke remains challenging, and finding markers that could reflect motor function would help to understand and evaluate the therapy and recovery. The present study explored whether brain oscillations in different electroencephalogram (EEG) bands could indicate the motor status and recovery induced by action observation-driven brain-computer interface (AO-BCI) robotic therapy in chronic stroke. The neurophysiological data of 16 chronic stroke patients who received 20-session BCI hand training is the basis of the study presented here. Resting-state EEG was recorded during the observation of non-biological movements, while task-stage EEG was recorded during the observation of biological movements in training. The motor performance was evaluated using the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) and upper extremity Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA), and significant improvements (p < 0.05) on both scales were found in patients after the intervention. Averaged EEG band power in the affected hemisphere presented negative correlations with scales pre-training; however, no significant correlations (p > 0.01) were found both in the pre-training and post-training stages. After comparing the variation of oscillations over training, we found patients with good and poor recovery presented different trends in delta, low-beta, and high-beta variations, and only patients with good recovery presented significant changes in EEG band power after training (delta band, p < 0.01). Importantly, motor improvements in ARAT correlate significantly with task EEG power changes (low-beta, c.c = 0.71, p = 0.005; high-beta, c.c = 0.71, p = 0.004) and task/rest EEG power ratio changes (delta, c.c = -0.738, p = 0.003; low-beta, c.c = 0.67, p = 0.009; high-beta, c.c = 0.839, p = 0.000). These results suggest that, in chronic stroke, EEG band power may not be a good indicator of motor status. However, ipsilesional oscillation changes in the delta and beta bands provide potential biomarkers related to the therapeutic-induced improvement of motor function in effective BCI intervention, which may be useful in understanding the brain plasticity changes and contribute to evaluating therapy and recovery in chronic-stage motor rehabilitation.

Quantitative measures of the resting EEG in stroke: a systematic review on clinical correlation and prognostic value

OBJECT

Quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) has shown promising results as a predictor of clinical impairment in stroke. We systematically reviewed published papers that focus on qEEG metrics in the resting EEG of patients with mono-hemispheric stroke, to summarize current knowledge and pave the way for future research.

METHODS

Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we systematically searched the literature for papers that fitted our inclusion criteria. Rayyan QCRR was used to allow deduplication and collaborative blinded paper review. Due to multiple outcomes and non-homogeneous literature, a scoping review approach was used to address the topic.

RESULTS

Or initial search (PubMed, Embase, Google scholar) yielded 3200 papers. After proper screening, we selected 71 papers that fitted our inclusion criteria and we developed a scoping review thar describes the current state of the art of qEEG in stroke. Notably, among selected papers 53 (74.3%) focused on spectral power; 11 (15.7%) focused on symmetry indexes, 17 (24.3%) on connectivity metrics, while 5 (7.1%) were about other metrics (e.g. detrended fluctuation analysis). Moreover, 42 (58.6%) studies were performed with standard 19 electrodes EEG caps and only a minority used high-definition EEG.

CONCLUSIONS

We systematically assessed major findings on qEEG and stroke, evidencing strengths and potential pitfalls of this promising branch of research.

Patient-specific modeling for guided rehabilitation of stroke patients: the BrainX3 use-case

BrainX3 is an interactive neuroinformatics platform that has been thoughtfully designed to support neuroscientists and clinicians with the visualization, analysis, and simulation of human neuroimaging, electrophysiological data, and brain models. The platform is intended to facilitate research and clinical use cases, with a focus on personalized medicine diagnostics, prognostics, and intervention decisions. BrainX3 is designed to provide an intuitive user experience and is equipped to handle different data types and 3D visualizations. To enhance patient-based analysis, and in keeping with the principles of personalized medicine, we propose a framework that can assist clinicians in identifying lesions and making patient-specific intervention decisions. To this end, we are developing an AI-based model for lesion identification, along with a mapping of tract information. By leveraging the patient's lesion information, we can gain valuable insights into the structural damage caused by the lesion. Furthermore, constraining whole-brain models with patient-specific disconnection masks can allow for the detection of mesoscale excitatory-inhibitory imbalances that cause disruptions in macroscale network properties. Finally, such information has the potential to guide neuromodulation approaches, assisting in the choice of candidate targets for stimulation techniques such as Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation (TUS), which modulate E-I balance, potentiating cortical reorganization and the restoration of the dynamics and functionality disrupted due to the lesion.

Electroencephalography-based parietofrontal connectivity modulated by electroacupuncture for predicting upper limb motor recovery in subacute stroke

BACKGROUND

Predicting motor recovery in stroke patients is essential for effective rehabilitation planning and goal setting. However, intervention-specific biomarkers for such predictions are limited. This study investigates the potential of electroacupuncture (EA) - induced brain network connectivity as a prognostic biomarker for upper limb motor recovery in stroke.

METHODS

A randomized crossover and prospective observational study was conducted involving 40 stroke patients within 30 days of onset. Patients underwent both EA and sham electroacupuncture (SEA) interventions. Simultaneously, resting electroencephalography signals were recorded to assess brain response. Patients' motor function was monitored for 3 months and categorized into Poor and proportional (Prop) recovery groups. The correlations between the targeted brain network of parietofrontal (PF) functional connectivity (FC) during the different courses of the 2 EA interventions and partial least squares regression models were constructed to predict upper limb motor recovery.

RESULTS

Before the EA intervention, only ipsilesional PF network FC in the beta band correlated with motor recovery (r = -0.37, P = .041). Post-EA intervention, significant correlations with motor recovery were found in the beta band of the contralesional PF network FC (r = -0.43, P = .018) and the delta and theta bands of the ipsilesional PF network FC (delta: r = -0.59, P = .0004; theta: r = -0.45, P = .0157). No significant correlations were observed for the SEA intervention (all P > .05). Specifically, the delta band ipsilesional PF network FC after EA stimulation significantly differed between Poor and Prop groups (t = 3.474, P = .002, Cohen's d = 1.287, Poor > Prop). Moreover, the partial least squares regression model fitted after EA stimulation exhibited high explanatory power (R2 = 0.613), predictive value (Q2 = 0.547), and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE = 0.192) for predicting upper limb proportional recovery compared to SEA.

CONCLUSION

EA-induced PF network FC holds potential as a robust prognostic biomarker for upper limb motor recovery, providing valuable insights for clinical decision-making.

A Narrative Review on Multi-Domain Instrumental Approaches to Evaluate Neuromotor Function in Rehabilitation

In clinical scenarios, the use of biomedical sensors, devices and multi-parameter assessments is fundamental to provide a comprehensive portrait of patients' state, in order to adapt and personalize rehabilitation interventions and support clinical decision-making. However, there is a huge gap between the potential of the multidomain techniques available and the limited practical use that is made in the clinical scenario. This paper reviews the current state-of-the-art and provides insights into future directions of multi-domain instrumental approaches in the clinical assessment of patients involved in neuromotor rehabilitation. We also summarize the main achievements and challenges of using multi-domain approaches in the assessment of rehabilitation for various neurological disorders affecting motor functions. Our results showed that multi-domain approaches combine information and measurements from different tools and biological signals, such as kinematics, electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), and clinical scales, to provide a comprehensive and objective evaluation of patients' state and recovery. This multi-domain approach permits the progress of research in clinical and rehabilitative practice and the understanding of the pathophysiological changes occurring during and after rehabilitation. We discuss the potential benefits and limitations of multi-domain approaches for clinical decision-making, personalized therapy, and prognosis. We conclude by highlighting the need for more standardized methods, validation studies, and the integration of multi-domain approaches in clinical practice and research.

Task Cortical Connectivity Reveals Different Network Reorganizations between Mild Stroke Patients with Cortical and Subcortical Lesions

Accumulating efforts have been made to investigate cognitive impairment in stroke patients, but little has been focused on mild stroke. Research on the impact of mild stroke and different lesion locations on cognitive impairment is still limited. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction in mild stroke at different lesion locations, electroencephalograms (EEGs) were recorded in three groups (40 patients with cortical stroke (CS), 40 patients with subcortical stroke (SS), and 40 healthy controls (HC)) during a visual oddball task. Power envelope connectivity (PEC) was constructed based on EEG source signals, followed by graph theory analysis to quantitatively assess functional brain network properties. A classification framework was further applied to explore the feasibility of PEC in the identification of mild stroke. The results showed worse behavioral performance in the patient groups, and PECs with significant differences among three groups showed complex distribution patterns in frequency bands and the cortex. In the delta band, the global efficiency was significantly higher in HC than in CS (p = 0.011), while local efficiency was significantly increased in SS than in CS (p = 0.038). In the beta band, the small-worldness was significantly increased in HC compared to CS (p = 0.004). Moreover, the satisfactory classification results (76.25% in HC vs. CS, and 80.00% in HC vs. SS) validate the potential of PECs as a biomarker in the detection of mild stroke. Our findings offer some new quantitative insights into the complex mechanisms of cognitive impairment in mild stroke at different lesion locations, which may facilitate post-stroke cognitive rehabilitation.

Multiscale effects of excitatory-inhibitory homeostasis in lesioned cortical networks: A computational study

Stroke-related disruptions in functional connectivity (FC) often spread beyond lesioned areas and, given the localized nature of lesions, it is unclear how the recovery of FC is orchestrated on a global scale. Since recovery is accompanied by long-term changes in excitability, we propose excitatory-inhibitory (E-I) homeostasis as a driving mechanism. We present a large-scale model of the neocortex, with synaptic scaling of local inhibition, showing how E-I homeostasis can drive the post-lesion restoration of FC and linking it to changes in excitability. We show that functional networks could reorganize to recover disrupted modularity and small-worldness, but not network dynamics, suggesting the need to consider forms of plasticity beyond synaptic scaling of inhibition. On average, we observed widespread increases in excitability, with the emergence of complex lesion-dependent patterns related to biomarkers of relevant side effects of stroke, such as epilepsy, depression and chronic pain. In summary, our results show that the effects of E-I homeostasis extend beyond local E-I balance, driving the restoration of global properties of FC, and relating to post-stroke symptomatology. Therefore, we suggest the framework of E-I homeostasis as a relevant theoretical foundation for the study of stroke recovery and for understanding the emergence of meaningful features of FC from local dynamics.

Brain network analysis reveals convergent and divergent aberrations between mild stroke patients with cortical and subcortical infarcts during cognitive task performing

Although consistent evidence has revealed that cognitive impairment is a common sequela in patients with mild stroke, few studies have focused on it, nor the impact of lesion location on cognitive function. Evidence on the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of mild stroke and lesion location on cognitive function is limited. This prompted us to conduct a comprehensive and quantitative study of functional brain network properties in mild stroke patients with different lesion locations. Specifically, an empirical approach was introduced in the present work to explore the impact of mild stroke-induced cognitive alterations on functional brain network reorganization during cognitive tasks (i.e., visual and auditory oddball). Electroencephalogram functional connectivity was estimated from three groups (i.e., 40 patients with cortical infarctions, 48 patients with subcortical infarctions, and 50 healthy controls). Using graph theoretical analysis, we quantitatively investigated the topological reorganization of functional brain networks at both global and nodal levels. Results showed that both patient groups had significantly worse behavioral performance on both tasks, with significantly longer reaction times and reduced response accuracy. Furthermore, decreased global and local efficiency were found in both patient groups, indicating a mild stroke-related disruption in information processing efficiency that is independent of lesion location. Regarding the nodal level, both divergent and convergent node strength distribution patterns were revealed between both patient groups, implying that mild stroke with different lesion locations would lead to complex regional alterations during visual and auditory information processing, while certain robust cognitive processes were independent of lesion location. These findings provide some of the first quantitative insights into the complex neural mechanisms of mild stroke-induced cognitive impairment and extend our understanding of underlying alterations in cognition-related brain networks induced by different lesion locations, which may help to promote post-stroke management and rehabilitation.

Literature review of stroke assessment for upper-extremity physical function via EEG, EMG, kinematic, and kinetic measurements and their reliability

BACKGROUND

Significant clinician training is required to mitigate the subjective nature and achieve useful reliability between measurement occasions and therapists. Previous research supports that robotic instruments can improve quantitative biomechanical assessments of the upper limb, offering reliable and more sensitive measures. Furthermore, combining kinematic and kinetic measurements with electrophysiological measurements offers new insights to unlock targeted impairment-specific therapy. This review presents common methods for analyzing biomechanical and neuromuscular data by describing their validity and reporting their reliability measures.

METHODS

This paper reviews literature (2000-2021) on sensor-based measures and metrics for upper-limb biomechanical and electrophysiological (neurological) assessment, which have been shown to correlate with clinical test outcomes for motor assessment. The search terms targeted robotic and passive devices developed for movement therapy. Journal and conference papers on stroke assessment metrics were selected using PRISMA guidelines. Intra-class correlation values of some of the metrics are recorded, along with model, type of agreement, and confidence intervals, when reported.

RESULTS

A total of 60 articles are identified. The sensor-based metrics assess various aspects of movement performance, such as smoothness, spasticity, efficiency, planning, efficacy, accuracy, coordination, range of motion, and strength. Additional metrics assess abnormal activation patterns of cortical activity and interconnections between brain regions and muscle groups; aiming to characterize differences between the population who had a stroke and the healthy population.

CONCLUSION

Range of motion, mean speed, mean distance, normal path length, spectral arc length, number of peaks, and task time metrics have all demonstrated good to excellent reliability, as well as provide a finer resolution compared to discrete clinical assessment tests. EEG power features for multiple frequency bands of interest, specifically the bands relating to slow and fast frequencies comparing affected and non-affected hemispheres, demonstrate good to excellent reliability for populations at various stages of stroke recovery. Further investigation is needed to evaluate the metrics missing reliability information. In the few studies combining biomechanical measures with neuroelectric signals, the multi-domain approaches demonstrated agreement with clinical assessments and provide further information during the relearning phase. Combining the reliable sensor-based metrics in the clinical assessment process will provide a more objective approach, relying less on therapist expertise. This paper suggests future work on analyzing the reliability of metrics to prevent biasedness and selecting the appropriate analysis.

A Method for Estimating Longitudinal Change in Motor Skill from Individualized Functional-Connectivity Measures

Pragmatic, objective, and accurate motor assessment tools could facilitate more frequent appraisal of longitudinal change in motor function and subsequent development of personalized therapeutic strategies. Brain functional connectivity (FC) has shown promise as an objective neurophysiological measure for this purpose. The involvement of different brain networks, along with differences across subjects due to age or existing capabilities, motivates an individualized approach towards the evaluation of FC. We advocate the use of EEG-based resting-state FC (rsFC) measures to address the pragmatic requirements. Pertaining to appraisal of accuracy, we suggest using the acquisition of motor skill by healthy individuals that could be quantified at small incremental change. Computer-based tracing tasks are a good candidate in this regard when using spatial error in tracing as an objective measure of skill. This work investigates the application of an individualized method that utilizes Partial Least Squares analysis to estimate the longitudinal change in tracing error from changes in rsFC. Longitudinal data from participants yielded an average accuracy of 98% (standard deviation of 1.2%) in estimating tracing error. The results show potential for an accurate individualized motor assessment tool that reduces the dependence on the expertise and availability of trained examiners, thereby facilitating more frequent appraisal of function and development of personalized training programs.

Bilateral Sensorimotor Cortical Communication Modulated by Multiple Hand Training in Stroke Participants: A Single Training Session Pilot Study

Bi-manual therapy (BT), mirror therapy (MT), and robot-assisted rehabilitation have been conducted in hand training in a wide range of stages in stroke patients; however, the mechanisms of action during training remain unclear. In the present study, participants performed hand tasks under different intervention conditions to study bilateral sensorimotor cortical communication, and EEG was recorded. A multifactorial design of the experiment was used with the factors of manipulating objects (O), robot-assisted bimanual training (RT), and MT. The sum of spectral coherence was applied to analyze the C3 and C4 signals to measure the level of bilateral corticocortical communication. We included stroke patients with onset <6 months (n = 6), between 6 months and 1 year (n = 14), and onset >1 year (n = 20), and their Brunnstrom recovery stage ranged from 2 to 4. The results showed that stroke duration might influence the effects of hand rehabilitation in bilateral cortical corticocortical communication with significant main effects under different conditions in the alpha and beta bands. Therefore, stroke duration may influence the effects of hand rehabilitation on interhemispheric coherence.

A Novel Deep Learning Method Based on an Overlapping Time Window Strategy for Brain-Computer Interface-Based Stroke Rehabilitation

Globally, stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. The classification of motor intentions using brain activity is an important task in the rehabilitation of stroke patients using brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). This paper presents a new method for model training in EEG-based BCI rehabilitation by using overlapping time windows. For this aim, three different models, a convolutional neural network (CNN), graph isomorphism network (GIN), and long short-term memory (LSTM), are used for performing the classification task of motor attempt (MA). We conducted several experiments with different time window lengths, and the results showed that the deep learning approach based on overlapping time windows achieved improvements in classification accuracy, with the LSTM combined vote-counting strategy (VS) having achieved the highest average classification accuracy of 90.3% when the window size was 70. The results verified that the overlapping time window strategy is useful for increasing the efficiency of BCI rehabilitation.

Directed network analysis reveals changes in cortical and muscular connectivity caused by different standing balance tasks

Objective.Standing balance forms the basis of daily activities that require the integration of multi-sensory information and coordination of multi-muscle activation. Previous studies have confirmed that the cortex is directly involved in balance control, but little is known about the neural mechanisms of cortical integration and muscle coordination in maintaining standing balance.Approach.We used a direct directed transfer function (dDTF) to analyze the changes in the cortex and muscle connections of healthy subjects (15 subjects: 13 male and 2 female) corresponding to different standing balance tasks.Main results.The results show that the topology of the EEG brain network and muscle network changes significantly as the difficulty of the balancing tasks increases. For muscle networks, the connection analysis shows that the connection of antagonistic muscle pairs plays a major role in the task. For EEG brain networks, graph theory-based analysis shows that the clustering coefficient increases significantly, and the characteristic path length decreases significantly with increasing task difficulty. We also found that cortex-to-muscle connections increased with the difficulty of the task and were significantly stronger than the muscle-to-cortex connections.Significance.These results show that changes in the difficulty of balancing tasks alter EEG brain networks and muscle networks, and an analysis based on the directed network can provide rich information for exploring the neural mechanisms of balance control.

Effect of Rehabilitation on Brain Functional Connectivity in a Stroke Patient Affected by Conduction Aphasia

Stroke is a medical condition that affects the brain and represents a leading cause of death and disability. Associated with drug therapy, rehabilitative treatment is essential for promoting recovery. In the present work, we report an EEG-based study concerning a left ischemic stroke patient affected by conduction aphasia. Specifically, the objective is to compare the brain functional connectivity before and after an intensive rehabilitative treatment. The analysis was performed by means of local and global efficiency measures related to the execution of three tasks: naming, repetition and reading. As expected, the results showed that the treatment led to a balancing of the values of both parameters between the two hemispheres since the rehabilitation contributed to the creation of new neural patterns to compensate for the disrupted ones. Moreover, we observed that for both name and repetition tasks, shortly after the stroke, the global and local connectivity are lower in the affected lobe (left hemisphere) than in the unaffected one (right hemisphere). Conversely, for the reading task, global and local connectivity are higher in the impaired lobe. This apparently contrasting trend can be due to the effects of stroke, which affect not only the site of structural damage but also brain regions belonging to a functional network. Moreover, changes in network connectivity can be task-dependent. This work can be considered a first step for future EEG-based studies to establish the most suitable connectivity measures for supporting the treatment of stroke and monitoring the recovery process.

A framework for quantifying the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on motor recovery from hemiparesis: Corticomuscular Network

OBJECTIVE

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is an experimental therapy for promoting motor recovery from hemiparesis. At present, hemiparesis patients' responses to TMS are variable. To maximize its therapeutic potential, we need an approach that relates the electrophysiology of motor recovery and TMS. To this end, we propose Corticomuscular Network (CMN) representing the holistic motor system, including the cortico-cortical pathway, corticospinal tract, and muscle co-activation.

METHODS

CMN is made up of coherence between pairs of electrode signals and spatial locations of the electrodes. We associated coherence and graph features of CMN with Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA) for the upper extremity. Besides, we compared CMN between 8 patients with hemiparesis and 6 healthy controls and contrasted CMN of patients before and after a 1Hz TMS.

MAIN RESULTS

Corticomuscular coherence (CMC) correlated positively with FMA. The regression model between FMA and CMC between 5 pairs of channels had 0.99 adjusted R^2 and a p-value less than 0.01. Compared to healthy controls, CMN of patients tended to be a small-world network and was more interconnected with higher CMC. CMC between cortex and triceps brachii long head was higher in patients. 15-minute 1Hz TMS protocol induced coherence changes beyond the stimulation side and had a limited impact on CMN parameters that are related to motor recovery.

SIGNIFICANCE

CMN is a potential clinical approach to quantify rehabilitating progress. It also sheds light on the desirable electrophysiological effects of TMS based on which rehabilitating strategies can be optimized.

The Prognostic Utility of Electroencephalography in Stroke Recovery: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Improved ability to predict patient recovery would guide post-stroke care by helping clinicians personalize treatment and maximize outcomes. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides a direct measure of the functional neuroelectric activity in the brain that forms the basis for neuroplasticity and recovery, and thus may increase prognostic ability.

OBJECTIVE

To examine evidence for the prognostic utility of EEG in stroke recovery via systematic review/meta-analysis.

METHODS

Peer-reviewed journal articles that examined the relationship between EEG and subsequent clinical outcome(s) in stroke were searched using electronic databases. Two independent researchers extracted data for synthesis. Linear meta-regressions were performed across subsets of papers with common outcome measures to quantify the association between EEG and outcome.

RESULTS

75 papers were included. Association between EEG and clinical outcomes was seen not only early post-stroke, but more than 6 months post-stroke. The most studied prognostic potential of EEG was in predicting independence and stroke severity in the standard acute stroke care setting. The meta-analysis showed that EEG was associated with subsequent clinical outcomes measured by the Modified Rankin Scale, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, and Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity Assessment (r = .72, .70, and .53 from 8, 13, and 12 papers, respectively). EEG improved prognostic abilities beyond prediction afforded by standard clinical assessments. However, the EEG variables examined were highly variable across studies and did not converge.

CONCLUSIONS

EEG shows potential to predict post-stroke recovery outcomes. However, evidence is largely explorative, primarily due to the lack of a definitive set of EEG measures to be used for prognosis.

Multi-Granularity Analysis of Brain Networks Assembled With Intra-Frequency and Cross-Frequency Phase Coupling for Human EEG After Stroke

Evaluating the impact of stroke on the human brain based on electroencephalogram (EEG) remains a challenging problem. Previous studies are mainly analyzed within frequency bands. This article proposes a multi-granularity analysis framework, which uses multiple brain networks assembled with intra-frequency and cross-frequency phase-phase coupling to evaluate the stroke impact in temporal and spatial granularity. Through our experiments on the EEG data of 11 patients with left ischemic stroke and 11 healthy controls during the mental rotation task, we find that the brain information interaction is highly affected after stroke, especially in delta-related cross-frequency bands, such as delta-alpha, delta-low beta, and delta-high beta. Besides, the average phase synchronization index (PSI) of the right hemisphere between patients with stroke and controls has a significant difference, especially in delta-alpha (p = 0.0186 in the left-hand mental rotation task, p = 0.0166 in the right-hand mental rotation task), which shows that the non-lesion hemisphere of patients with stroke is also affected while it cannot be observed in intra-frequency bands. The graph theory analysis of the entire task stage reveals that the brain network of patients with stroke has a longer feature path length and smaller clustering coefficient. Besides, in the graph theory analysis of three sub-stags, the more stable significant difference between the two groups is emerging in the mental rotation sub-stage (500–800 ms). These findings demonstrate that the coupling between different frequency bands brings a new perspective to understanding the brain's cognitive process after stroke.

Functional brain networks assessed with surface electroencephalography for predicting motor recovery in a neural guided intervention for chronic stroke

Predicting whether a chronic stroke patient is likely to benefit from a specific intervention can help patients establish reasonable expectations. It also provides the basis for candidates selecting for the intervention. Recent convergent evidence supports the value of network-based approach for understanding the relationship between dysfunctional neural activity and motor deficits after stroke. In this study, we applied resting-state brain connectivity networks to investigate intervention-specific predictive biomarkers of motor improvement in 22 chronic stroke participants who received either combined action observation with EEG-guided robot-hand training (Neural Guided-Action Observation Group, n = 12, age: 34–68 years) or robot-hand training without action observation and EEG guidance (non-Neural Guided-text group, n = 10, age: 42–57 years). The robot hand in Neural Guided-Action Observation training was activated only when significant mu suppression (8–12 Hz) was detected from participant’s EEG signals in ipsilesional hemisphere while it was randomly activated in non-Neural Guided-text training. Only the Neural Guided-Action Observation group showed a significant long-term improvement in their upper-limb motor functions (P < 0.5). In contrast, no significant training effect on the paretic motor functions was found in the non-Neural Guided-text group (P > 0.5). The results of brain connectivity estimated via EEG coherence showed that the pre-training interhemispheric connectivity of delta, theta, alpha and contralesional connectivity of beta were motor improvement related in the Neural Guided-Action Observation group. They can not only differentiate participants with good and poor recovery (interhemispheric delta: P = 0.047, Hedges’ g = 1.409; interhemispheric theta: P = 0.046, Hedges’ g = 1.333; interhemispheric alpha: P = 0.038, Hedges’ g = 1.536; contralesional beta: P = 0.027, Hedges’ g = 1.613) but also significantly correlated with post-training intervention gains (interhemispheric delta: r = −0.901, P < 0.05; interhemispheric theta: r = −0.702, P < 0.05; interhemispheric alpha: r = −0.641, P < 0.05; contralesional beta: r = −0.729, P < 0.05). In contrast, no EEG coherence was significantly correlated with intervention gains in the non-Neural Guided-text group (all Ps>0.05). Partial least square regression showed that the combination of pre-training interhemispheric and contralesional local connectivity could precisely predict intervention gains in the Neural Guided-Action Observation group with a strong correlation between predicted and observed intervention gains (r = 0.82r=0.82) and between predicted and observed intervention outcomes (r = 0.90r=0.90). In summary, EEG-based resting-state brain connectivity networks may serve clinical decision-making by offering an approach to predicting Neural Guided-Action Observation training-induced motor improvement.

Individual-specific networks for prediction modelling - A scoping review of methods

BACKGROUND

Recent advances in biotechnology enable the acquisition of high-dimensional data on individuals, posing challenges for prediction models which traditionally use covariates such as clinical patient characteristics. Alternative forms of covariate representations for the features derived from these modern data modalities should be considered that can utilize their intrinsic interconnection. The connectivity information between these features can be represented as an individual-specific network defined by a set of nodes and edges, the strength of which can vary from individual to individual. Global or local graph-theoretical features describing the network may constitute potential prognostic biomarkers instead of or in addition to traditional covariates and may replace the often unsuccessful search for individual biomarkers in a high-dimensional predictor space.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review to identify, collate and critically appraise the state-of-art in the use of individual-specific networks for prediction modelling in medicine and applied health research, published during 2000-2020 in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and Embase.

RESULTS

Our scoping review revealed the main application areas namely neurology and pathopsychology, followed by cancer research, cardiology and pathology (N = 148). Network construction was mainly based on Pearson correlation coefficients of repeated measurements, but also alternative approaches (e.g. partial correlation, visibility graphs) were found. For covariates measured only once per individual, network construction was mostly based on quantifying an individual's contribution to the overall group-level structure. Despite the multitude of identified methodological approaches for individual-specific network inference, the number of studies that were intended to enable the prediction of clinical outcomes for future individuals was quite limited, and most of the models served as proof of concept that network characteristics can in principle be useful for prediction.

CONCLUSION

The current body of research clearly demonstrates the value of individual-specific network analysis for prediction modelling, but it has not yet been considered as a general tool outside the current areas of application. More methodological research is still needed on well-founded strategies for network inference, especially on adequate network sparsification and outcome-guided graph-theoretical feature extraction and selection, and on how networks can be exploited efficiently for prediction modelling.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) With or Without Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) as Biomarkers for Post-stroke Recovery: A Narrative Review

Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and disability. Despite the high prevalence of stroke, characterizing the acute neural recovery patterns that follow stroke and predicting long-term recovery remains challenging. Objective methods to quantify and characterize neural injury are still lacking. Since neuroimaging methods have a poor temporal resolution, EEG has been used as a method for characterizing post-stroke recovery mechanisms for various deficits including motor, language, and cognition as well as predicting treatment response to experimental therapies. In addition, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a form of non-invasive brain stimulation, has been used in conjunction with EEG (TMS-EEG) to evaluate neurophysiology for a variety of indications. TMS-EEG has significant potential for exploring brain connectivity using focal TMS-evoked potentials and oscillations, which may allow for the system-specific delineation of recovery patterns after stroke. In this review, we summarize the use of EEG alone or in combination with TMS in post-stroke motor, language, cognition, and functional/global recovery. Overall, stroke leads to a reduction in higher frequency activity (≥8 Hz) and intra-hemispheric connectivity in the lesioned hemisphere, which creates an activity imbalance between non-lesioned and lesioned hemispheres. Compensatory activity in the non-lesioned hemisphere leads mostly to unfavorable outcomes and further aggravated interhemispheric imbalance. Balanced interhemispheric activity with increased intrahemispheric coherence in the lesioned networks correlates with improved post-stroke recovery. TMS-EEG studies reveal the clinical importance of cortical reactivity and functional connectivity within the sensorimotor cortex for motor recovery after stroke. Although post-stroke motor studies support the prognostic value of TMS-EEG, more studies are needed to determine its utility as a biomarker for recovery across domains including language, cognition, and hemispatial neglect. As a complement to MRI-based technologies, EEG-based technologies are accessible and valuable non-invasive clinical tools in stroke neurology.

Motor Impairment in Stroke Patients is Associated with Network Properties During Consecutive Motor Imagery

OBJECTIVE

Our study aimed to predict the Fugl-Meyer assessment (FMA) upper limb using network properties during motor imagery using electroencephalography (EEG) signals.

METHODS

The subjects performed a finger tapping imagery task according to consecutive cues. We measured the weighted phase lag index (wPLI) as functional connectivity and directed transfer function (DTF) as causal connectivity in healthy controls and stroke patients. The network properties based on the wPLI and DTF were calculated. We predicted the FMA upper limb using partial least squares regression.

RESULTS

A higher DTF in the mu band was observed in stroke patients than in healthy controls. Notably, the difference in local properties at node F3 was negatively correlated with motor impairment in stroke patients. Finally, using significant network properties based on the wPLI and DTF, we predicted motor impairments using the FMA upper limb with a root-mean-square error of 1.68 (R² = 0.97). This outperformed the state-of-the-art predictors.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that network properties based on functional and causal connectivity were highly associated with motor function in stroke patients.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our network properties can help calculate the predictor of motor impairments in stroke rehabilitation and provide insight into the neural correlates related to motor function based on EEG after reorganization induced by stroke.

Excitatory-Inhibitory Homeostasis and Diaschisis: Tying the Local and Global Scales in the Post-stroke Cortex

Maintaining a balance between excitatory and inhibitory activity is an essential feature of neural networks of the neocortex. In the face of perturbations in the levels of excitation to cortical neurons, synapses adjust to maintain excitatory-inhibitory (EI) balance. In this review, we summarize research on this EI homeostasis in the neocortex, using stroke as our case study, and in particular the loss of excitation to distant cortical regions after focal lesions. Widespread changes following a localized lesion, a phenomenon known as diaschisis, are not only related to excitability, but also observed with respect to functional connectivity. Here, we highlight the main findings regarding the evolution of excitability and functional cortical networks during the process of post-stroke recovery, and how both are related to functional recovery. We show that cortical reorganization at a global scale can be explained from the perspective of EI homeostasis. Indeed, recovery of functional networks is paralleled by increases in excitability across the cortex. These adaptive changes likely result from plasticity mechanisms such as synaptic scaling and are linked to EI homeostasis, providing a possible target for future therapeutic strategies in the process of rehabilitation. In addition, we address the difficulty of simultaneously studying these multiscale processes by presenting recent advances in large-scale modeling of the human cortex in the contexts of stroke and EI homeostasis, suggesting computational modeling as a powerful tool to tie the meso- and macro-scale processes of recovery in stroke patients.

Predicting upper extremity motor improvement following therapy using EEG-based connectivity in chronic stroke

BACKGROUND

Uncertain prognosis presents a challenge for therapists in determining the most efficient course of rehabilitation treatment for individual patients. Cortical Sensorimotor network connectivity may have prognostic utility for upper extremity motor improvement because the integrity of the communication within the sensorimotor network forms the basis for neuroplasticity and recovery.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate if pre-intervention sensorimotor connectivity predicts post-stroke upper extremity motor improvement following therapy.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of a pilot triple-blind randomized controlled trial. Twelve chronic stroke survivors underwent 2-week task-practice therapy, while receiving vibratory stimulation for the treatment group and no stimulation for the control group. EEG connectivity was obtained pre-intervention. Motor improvement was quantified as change in the Box and Block Test from pre to post-therapy. The association between ipsilesional sensorimotor connectivity and motor improvement was examined using regression, controlling for group. For negative control, contralesional/interhemispheric connectivity and conventional predictors (initial clinical motor score, age, time post-stroke, lesion volume) were examined.

RESULTS

Greater ipsilesional sensorimotor alpha connectivity was associated with greater upper extremity motor improvement following therapy for both groups (p < 0.05). Other factors were not significant.

CONCLUSION

EEG connectivity may have a prognostic utility for individual patients' upper extremity motor improvement following therapy in chronic stroke.

Neuromechanical Biomarkers for Robotic Neurorehabilitation

One of the current challenges for translational rehabilitation research is to develop the strategies to deliver accurate evaluation, prediction, patient selection, and decision-making in the clinical practice. In this regard, the robot-assisted interventions have gained popularity as they can provide the objective and quantifiable assessment of the motor performance by taking the kinematics parameters into the account. Neurophysiological parameters have also been proposed for this purpose due to the novel advances in the non-invasive signal processing techniques. In addition, other parameters linked to the motor learning and brain plasticity occurring during the rehabilitation have been explored, looking for a more holistic rehabilitation approach. However, the majority of the research done in this area is still exploratory. These parameters have shown the capability to become the “biomarkers” that are defined as the quantifiable indicators of the physiological/pathological processes and the responses to the therapeutical interventions. In this view, they could be finally used for enhancing the robot-assisted treatments. While the research on the biomarkers has been growing in the last years, there is a current need for a better comprehension and quantification of the neuromechanical processes involved in the rehabilitation. In particular, there is a lack of operationalization of the potential neuromechanical biomarkers into the clinical algorithms. In this scenario, a new framework called the “Rehabilomics” has been proposed to account for the rehabilitation research that exploits the biomarkers in its design. This study provides an overview of the state-of-the-art of the biomarkers related to the robotic neurorehabilitation, focusing on the translational studies, and underlying the need to create the comprehensive approaches that have the potential to take the research on the biomarkers into the clinical practice. We then summarize some promising biomarkers that are being under investigation in the current literature and provide some examples of their current and/or potential applications in the neurorehabilitation. Finally, we outline the main challenges and future directions in the field, briefly discussing their potential evolution and prospective.

The Effects of Intermittent Theta Burst Stimulation on Functional Brain Network Following Stroke: An Electroencephalography Study

Objective: Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) is a special form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), which effectively increases cortical excitability and has been widely used as a neural modulation approach in stroke rehabilitation. As effects of iTBS are typically investigated by motor evoked potentials, how iTBS influences functional brain network following stroke remains unclear. Resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) has been suggested to be a sensitive measure for evaluating effects of rTMS on brain functional activity and network. Here, we used resting-state EEG to investigate the effects of iTBS on functional brain network in stroke survivors. Methods: We studied thirty stroke survivors (age: 63.1 ± 12.1 years; chronicity: 4.0 ± 3.8 months; UE FMA: 26.6 ± 19.4/66) with upper limb motor dysfunction. Stroke survivors were randomly divided into two groups receiving either Active or Sham iTBS over the ipsilesional primary motor cortex. Resting-state EEG was recorded at baseline and immediately after iTBS to assess the effects of iTBS on functional brain network. Results: Delta and theta bands interhemispheric functional connectivity were significantly increased after Active iTBS (P = 0.038 and 0.011, respectively), but were not significantly changed after Sham iTBS (P = 0.327 and 0.342, respectively). Delta and beta bands global efficiency were also significantly increased after Active iTBS (P = 0.013 and 0.0003, respectively), but not after Sham iTBS (P = 0.586 and 0.954, respectively). Conclusion: This is the first study that used EEG to investigate the acute neuroplastic changes after iTBS following stroke. Our findings for the first time provide evidence that iTBS modulates brain network functioning in stroke survivors. Acute increase in interhemispheric functional connectivity and global efficiency after iTBS suggest that iTBS has the potential to normalize brain network functioning following stroke, which can be utilized in stroke rehabilitation.

Efficacy of Intravenous Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Motor Recovery After Ischemic Stroke: A Neuroimaging Study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Stem cell-based therapy is a promising approach to repair brain damage after stroke. This study was conducted to investigate changes in neuroimaging measures using stem cell-based therapy in patients with ischemic stroke.

METHODS

In this prospective, open-label, randomized controlled trial with blinded outcome evaluation, patients with severe middle cerebral artery territory infarct were assigned to the autologous mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) treatment or control group. Of 54 patients who completed the intervention, 31 for the MSC and 13 for the control groups were included in this neuroimaging analysis. Motor function was assessed before the intervention and 90 days after randomization using the Fugl-Meyer assessment scale. Neuroimaging measures included fractional anisotropy values of the corticospinal tract and posterior limb of the internal capsule from diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging and strength of connectivity, efficiency, and density of the motor network from resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

For motor function, the improvement ratio of the Fugl-Meyer assessment score was significantly higher in the MSC group compared with the control group. In neuroimaging, corticospinal tract and posterior limb of the internal capsule fractional anisotropy did not decrease in the MSC group but significantly decreased at 90 days after randomization in the control group. Interhemispheric connectivity and ipsilesional connectivity significantly increased in the MSC group. Change in interhemispheric connectivity showed a significant group difference.

CONCLUSIONS

Stem cell-based therapy can protect corticospinal tract against degeneration and enhance positive changes in network reorganization to facilitate motor recovery after stroke.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT01716481.

Changes in EEG Brain Connectivity Caused by Short-Term BCI Neurofeedback-Rehabilitation Training: A Case Study

Background

In combined with neurofeedback, Motor Imagery (MI) based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) has been an effective long-term treatment therapy for motor dysfunction caused by neurological injury in the brain (e.g., post-stroke hemiplegia). However, individual neurological differences have led to variability in the single sessions of rehabilitation training. Research on the impact of short training sessions on brain functioning patterns can help evaluate and standardize the short duration of rehabilitation training. In this paper, we use the electroencephalogram (EEG) signals to explore the brain patterns’ changes after a short-term rehabilitation training.

Materials and Methods

Using an EEG-BCI system, we analyzed the changes in short-term (about 1-h) MI training data with and without visual feedback, respectively. We first examined the EEG signal’s Mu band power’s attenuation caused by Event-Related Desynchronization (ERD). Then we use the EEG’s Event-Related Potentials (ERP) features to construct brain networks and evaluate the training from multiple perspectives: small-scale based on single nodes, medium-scale based on hemispheres, and large-scale based on all-brain.

Results

Results showed no significant difference in the ERD power attenuation estimation in both groups. But the neurofeedback group’s ERP brain network parameters had substantial changes and trend properties compared to the group without feedback. The neurofeedback group’s Mu band power’s attenuation increased but not significantly (fitting line slope = 0.2, t-test value p > 0.05) after the short-term MI training, while the non-feedback group occurred an insignificant decrease (fitting line slope = −0.4, t-test value p > 0.05). In the ERP-based brain network analysis, the neurofeedback group’s network parameters were attenuated in all scales significantly (t-test value: p < 0.01); while the non-feedback group’s most network parameters didn’t change significantly (t-test value: p > 0.05).

Conclusion

The MI-BCI training’s short-term effects does not show up in the ERD analysis significantly but can be detected by ERP-based network analysis significantly. Results inspire the efficient evaluation of short-term rehabilitation training and provide a useful reference for subsequent studies.

Resting State Connectivity Is Modulated by Motor Learning in Individuals After Stroke

Objective

Activity patterns across brain regions that can be characterized at rest (ie, resting-state functional connectivity [rsFC]) are disrupted after stroke and linked to impairments in motor function. While changes in rsFC are associated with motor recovery, it is not clear how rsFC is modulated by skilled motor practice used to promote recovery. The current study examined how rsFC is modulated by skilled motor practice after stroke and how changes in rsFC are linked to motor learning.

Methods

Two groups of participants (individuals with stroke and age-matched controls) engaged in 4 weeks of skilled motor practice of a complex, gamified reaching task. Clinical assessments of motor function and impairment, and brain activity (via functional magnetic resonance imaging) were obtained before and after training.

Results

While no differences in rsFC were observed in the control group, increased connectivity was observed in the sensorimotor network, linked to learning in the stroke group. Relative to healthy controls, a decrease in network efficiency was observed in the stroke group following training.

Conclusions

Findings indicate that rsFC patterns related to learning observed after stroke reflect a shift toward a compensatory network configuration characterized by decreased network efficiency.

Impairments of cortico-cortical connectivity in fine tactile sensation after stroke

Background

Fine tactile sensation plays an important role in motor relearning after stroke. However, little is known about its dynamics in post-stroke recovery, principally due to a lack of effective evaluation on neural responses to fine tactile stimulation. This study investigated the post-stroke alteration of cortical connectivity and its functional structure in response to fine tactile stimulation via textile fabrics by electroencephalogram (EEG)-derived functional connectivity and graph theory analyses.

Method

Whole brain EEG was recorded from 64 scalp channels in 8 participants with chronic stroke and 8 unimpaired controls before and during the skin of the unilateral forearm contacted with a piece of cotton fabric. Functional connectivity (FC) was then estimated using EEG coherence. The fabric stimulation induced FC (SFC) was analyzed by a cluster-based permutation test for the FC in baseline and fabric stimulation. The functional structure of connectivity alteration in the brain was also investigated by assessing the multiscale topological properties of functional brain networks according to the graph theory.

Results

In the SFC distribution, an altered hemispheric lateralization (HL) (HL degree, 14%) was observed when stimulating the affected forearm in the stroke group, compared to stimulation of the unaffected forearm of the stroke group (HL degree, 53%) and those of the control group (HL degrees, 92% for the left and 69% for the dominant right limb). The involvement of additional brain regions, i.e., the distributed attention networks, was also observed when stimulating either limb of the stroke group compared with those of the control. Significantly increased (P < 0.05) global and local efficiencies were found when stimulating the affected forearm compared to the unaffected forearm. A significantly increased (P < 0.05) degree of inter-hemisphere FC (interdegree) mainly within ipsilesional somatosensory region and a significantly diminished degree of intra-hemisphere FC (intradegree) (P < 0.05) in ipsilesional primary somatosensory region were observed when stimulating the affected forearm, compared with the unaffected forearm.

Conclusions

The alteration of cortical connectivity in fine tactile sensation post-stroke was characterized by the compensation from the contralesional hemisphere and distributed attention networks related to involuntary attention. The interhemispheric connectivity could implement the compensation from the contralateral hemisphere to the ipsilesional somatosensory region. Stroke participants also exerted increased cortical activities in fine tactile sensation.

Novel adaptive impedance control for exoskeleton robot for rehabilitation using a nonlinear time-delay disturbance observer

A new adaptive impedance, augmented with backstepping control, time-delay estimation, and a disturbance observer, was designed to perform passive-assistive rehabilitation motion. This was done using a rehabilitation robot whereby humans' musculoskeletal conditions were considered. This control scheme aimed to mimic the movement behavior of the user and to provide an accurate compensation for uncertainties and torque disturbances. Such disturbances were excited by constraints of input saturation of the robot's actuators, friction forces and backlash, several payloads of the attached upper-limb of each patient, and time delay errors. The designed impedance control algorithm would transfer the stiffness of the human upper limb to the developed impedance model via the measured user force. In the proposed control scheme, active rejection of disturbances would be achieved through the direct connection between such disturbances from the observer's output and the control input via the feedforward loop of the system. Furthermore, the computed control input does not require any precise knowledge of the robot's dynamic model or any knowledge of built-in torque-sensing units to provide the desirable physiotherapy treatment. Experimental investigations performed by two subjects were exhibited to support the benefits of the designed approach.

Multimodal Neuroimaging Using Concurrent EEG/fNIRS for Poststroke Recovery Assessment: An Exploratory Study

Background

Persistent motor deficits are very common in poststroke survivors and often lead to disability. Current clinical measures for profiling motor impairment and assessing poststroke recovery are largely subjective and lack precision.

Objective

A multimodal neuroimaging approach was developed based on concurrent functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electroencephalography (EEG) to identify biomarkers associated with motor function recovery and document the poststroke cortical reorganization.

Methods

EEG and fNIRS data were simultaneously recorded from 9 healthy controls and 18 stroke patients during a hand-clenching task. A novel fNIRS-informed EEG source imaging approach was developed to estimate cortical activity and functional connectivity. Subsequently, graph theory analysis was performed to identify network features for monitoring and predicting motor function recovery during a 4-week intervention.

Results

The task-evoked strength at ipsilesional primary somatosensory cortex was significantly lower in stroke patients compared with healthy controls ( P < .001). In addition, across the 4-week rehabilitation intervention, the strength at ipsilesional premotor cortex (PMC) ( R = 0.895, P = .006) and the connectivity between bilateral primary motor cortices (M1) ( R = 0.9, P = .007) increased in parallel with the improvement of motor function. Furthermore, a higher baseline strength at ipsilesional PMC was associated with a better motor function recovery ( R = 0.768, P = .007), while a higher baseline connectivity between ipsilesional supplementary motor cortex (SMA)–M1 implied a worse motor function recovery ( R = −0.745, P = .009).

Conclusion

The proposed multimodal EEG/fNIRS technique demonstrates a preliminary potential for monitoring and predicting poststroke motor recovery. We expect such findings can be further validated in future study.

Biomarker Application for Precision Medicine in Stroke

Stroke remains one of the leading causes of long-term disability and mortality despite recent advances in acute thrombolytic therapies. In fact, the global lifetime risk of stroke in adults over the age of 25 is approximately 25%, with 24.9 million cases of ischemic stroke and 18.7 million cases of hemorrhagic stroke reported in 2015. One of the main challenges in developing effective new acute therapeutics and enhanced long-term interventions for stroke recovery is the heterogeneity of stroke, including etiology, comorbidities, and lifestyle factors that uniquely affect each individual stroke survivor. In this comprehensive review, we propose that future biomarker studies can be designed to support precision medicine therapeutic interventions after stroke. The current challenges in defining ideal biomarkers for stroke are highlighted, including consideration of disease course, age, lifestyle factors, and subtypes of stroke. This overview of current clinical trials includes biomarker collection, and concludes with an example of biomarker design for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. With the advent of "-omics" studies, neuroimaging, big data, and precision medicine, well-designed stroke biomarker trials will greatly advance the treatment of a disease that affects millions globally every year.

Cortical connectivity from EEG data in acute stroke: A study via graph theory as a potential biomarker for functional recovery

Cerebral post-stroke plasticity has been repeatedly investigated via functional neuroimaging techniques mainly based on blood flow/metabolism. However, little is known on predictive value of topological properties of widely distributed neural networks immediately following stroke on rehabilitation outcome and post-stroke recovery measured by early functional outcome. The utility of EEG network parameters (i.e. small world organization) analysis as a potential rough and simple biomarker for stroke outcome has been little explored and needs more validation. A total of 139 consecutive patients within a post-stroke acute stage underwent EEG recording. A group of 110 age paired healthy subjects constituted the control group. All patients were clinically evaluated with 3 scales for stroke: NIHSS, Barthel and ARAT. As a first result, NIHSS, Barthel and ARAT correlated with Small World index as provided by the proportional increment/decrement of low (delta) and viceversa of high (beta2 and gamma) EEG frequency bands. Furthermore, in line with the aim of the present study, we found a strong correlation between NIHSS at follow up and gamma Small World index in the acute post-stroke period, giving SW index a significant weight of recovery prediction. This study aimed to investigate possible correlations between functional abnormalities of brain networks, measured by small world characteristics detected in resting state EEG source investigation, and early post-stroke clinical outcome in order to find a possible predictive index of functional recovery to address and/or correct the rehabilitation program.

Prognostic and Monitory EEG-Biomarkers for BCI Upper-Limb Stroke Rehabilitation

With the availability of multiple rehabilitative interventions, identifying the one that elicits the best motor outcome based on the unique neuro-clinical profile of the stroke survivor is a challenging task. Predicting the potential of recovery using biomarkers specific to an intervention hence becomes important. To address this, we investigate intervention-specific prognostic and monitory biomarkers of motor function improvements using quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) features in 19 chronic stroke patients following two different upper extremity rehabilitative interventions viz. Brain-computer interface (BCI) and transcranial direct current stimulation coupled BCI (tDCS-BCI). Brain symmetry index was found to be the best prognostic QEEG for clinical gains following BCI intervention ( r = -0.80 , p = 0.02 ), whereas power ratio index (PRI) was observed to be the best predictor for tDCS-BCI ( r = -0.96 , p = 0.004 ) intervention. Importantly, statistically significant between-intervention differences observed in the predictive capabilities of these features suggest that intervention-specific biomarkers can be identified. This approach can be further pursued to distinctly predict the expected response of a patient to available interventions. The intervention with the highest predicted gains may then be recommended to the patient, thereby enabling a personalized rehabilitation regime.

Camera-Based Mirror Visual Input for Priming Promotes Motor Recovery, Daily Function, and Brain Network Segregation in Subacute Stroke Patients

BACKGROUND

Camera technique-based mirror visual feedback (MVF) is an optimal interface for mirror therapy. However, its efficiency for stroke rehabilitation and the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the possible treatment benefits of camera-based MVF (camMVF) for priming prior to hand function exercise in subacute stroke patients, and to reveal topological reorganization of brain network in response to the intervention.

METHODS

Twenty subacute stroke patients were assigned randomly to the camMVF group (MG, N = 10) or a conventional group (CG, N = 10). Before, and after 2 and 4 weeks of intervention, the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Upper Limb subscale (FMA_UL), the Functional Independence Measure (FIM), the modified Ashworth Scale (MAS), manual muscle testing (MMT), and the Berg Balance Scale (BBS) were measured. Resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) signals were recorded before and after 4-week intervention.

RESULTS

The MG showed more improvements in the FMA_UL, the FMA_WH (wrist and hand), and the FIM than the CG. The clustering coefficient (CC) of the resting EEG network in the alpha band was increased globally in the MG after intervention but not in the CG. Nodal CC analyses revealed that the CC in the MG tended to increase in the ipsilesional occipital and temporal areas, and the bilateral central and parietal areas, suggesting improved local efficiency of communication in the visual, somatosensory, and motor areas. The changes of nodal CC at TP8 and PO8 were significantly positively correlated with the motor recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

The camMVF-based priming could improve the motor recovery, daily function, and brain network segregation in subacute stroke patients.

Abnormal Metabolic Connectivity in Rats at the Acute Stage of Ischemic Stroke

Stroke at the acute stage is a major cause of disability in adults, and is associated with dysfunction of brain networks. However, the mechanisms underlying changes in brain connectivity in stroke are far from fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated brain metabolism and metabolic connectivity in a rat ischemic stroke model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) at the acute stage using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Voxel-wise analysis showed decreased metabolism mainly in the ipsilesional hemisphere, and increased metabolism mainly in the contralesional cerebellum. We used further metabolic connectivity analysis to explore the brain metabolic network in MCAO. Compared to sham controls, rats with MCAO showed most significantly reduced nodal and local efficiency in the ipsilesional striatum. In addition, the MCAO group showed decreased metabolic central connection of the ipsilesional striatum with the ipsilesional cerebellum, ipsilesional hippocampus, and bilateral hypothalamus. Taken together, the present study demonstrated abnormal metabolic connectivity in rats at the acute stage of ischemic stroke, which might provide insight into clinical research.

A Role for New Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging Modalities in Daily Clinical Practice: Protocol of the Prediction of Cognitive Recovery After Stroke (PROCRAS) Study

Background

Cognitive impairment is common after acute ischemic stroke, affecting up to 75% of the patients. About half of the patients will show recovery, whereas the others will remain cognitively impaired or deteriorate. It is difficult to predict these different cognitive outcomes.

Objective

The objective of this study is to investigate whether diffusion tensor imaging–based measures of brain connectivity predict cognitive recovery after 1 year, in addition to patient characteristics and stroke severity. A specific premise of the Prediction of Cognitive Recovery After Stroke (PROCRAS) study is that it is conducted in a daily practice setting.

Methods

The PROCRAS study is a prospective, mono-center cohort study conducted in a large teaching hospital in the Netherlands. A total of 350 patients suffering from an ischemic stroke who screen positive for cognitive impairment on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA<26) in the acute stage will undergo a 3Tesla-Magnetic Resonance Imaging (3T-MRI) with a diffusion-weighted sequence and a neuropsychological assessment. Patients will be classified as being unimpaired, as having a mild vascular cognitive disorder, or as having a major vascular cognitive disorder. One year after stroke, patients will undergo follow-up neuropsychological assessment. The primary endpoint is recovery of cognitive function 1 year after stroke in patients with a confirmed poststroke cognitive disorder. The secondary endpoint is deterioration of cognitive function in the first year after stroke.

Results

The study is already ongoing for 1.5 years, and thus far, 252 patients have provided written informed consent. Final results are expected in June 2019.

Conclusions

The PROCRAS study will show the additional predictive value of diffusion tensor imaging-based measures of brain connectivity for cognitive outcome at 1 year in patients with a poststroke cognitive disorder in a daily clinical practice setting.

Registered Report Identifier

RR1-10.2196/9431