Titanium dioxide nanoparticles enhance thrombosis through triggering the phosphatidylserine exposure and procoagulant activation of red blood cells

Understanding the role of red blood cells in venous thromboembolism: A comprehensive review

Traditionally, red blood cells (RBCs) have been perceived as passive entities within the fibrin network, without any significant role in the pathophysiology of venous thromboembolism (VTE). This review explores the involvement of RBCs in the VTE process, summarizing previous study findings and providing a comprehensive review of the latest theories. At first, it explores the influence of abnormal RBC counts (as seen in polycythemia vera and with erythropoietin use) and the exposure of RBCs to phosphatidylserine (Ptd-L-Ser) in the pathophysiology of VTE. The mechanisms of endothelial injury induced by RBCs and their adhesion to the endothelium under different disease models are then demonstrated. We explore the role of physical and chemical interactions between RBCs and platelets, as well as the interactions between RBCs and neutrophils - particularly the neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by neutrophils - in the process of VTE. Additionally, we investigate the effect of RBCs on thrombin activation through two pathways, namely, the FXIIa-FXI-FIX pathway and the prekallikrein-dependent pathway. Lastly, we discuss the impact of RBCs on clot volume. In conclusion, we propose several potential methods aimed at unraveling the role of RBCs and their interaction with other components in the vascular system in the pathogenesis of VTE.

Potential mitigation of titanium dioxide nanoparticles against 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis through inhibiting the canonical NF-κB pathway

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) have been widely employed in various industry fields, which makes consumers concerned about their health impact. Our previous work displayed that TiO2 NPs participated in the mitigation of TNBS-induced colitis, but the mechanism is still unknown. This work aimed to explore the role of oxidative stress and NF-κB pathway in the effect of TiO2 NPs on TNBS-induced colitis. The results showed that TiO2 NPs administration reduced the DAI score of colitis mice after TNBS enema. TiO2 NPs did not alter oxidative stress status (GSH/GSSG), but repaired the gut dysbacteriosis and inhibited the canonical NF-κB pathway activation in TNBS-induced colitis mice, manifested as a decrease in pathogenic bacteria and an increase in beneficial bacteria, as well as down-regulation of toll-like receptors (TLRs), IKKα, IKKβ, p65 and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ) in mRNA level, and the increased transcription of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β, and IL-12), along with the declined protein level of TNF-α in TiO2 NPs treated colitis mice. The present study suggested that oral TiO2 NPs administration inhibited the canonical NF-κB pathway activation by repairing gut dysbacteriosis, which made a predominant role in alleviating colitis. These findings provided a new perspective for exploring the safety of TiO2 NPs.

Butylparaben promotes phosphatidylserine exposure and procoagulant activity of human red blood cells via increase of intracellular calcium levels

Parabens are widely used as preservatives, added to products commonly used by humans, and to which individuals are exposed orally or dermally. Once absorbed into the body, parabens move into the bloodstream and travel through the systemic circulation. We investigated the potential impact of parabens on the enhanced generation of thrombin by red blood cells (RBCs), which are the principal cellular components of blood. We tested the effects of methylparaben (MeP), ethylparaben (EtP), propylparaben (PrP), butylparaben (BuP), and p-hydroxybenzoic acid on freshly isolated human RBCs. BuP and simultaneous exposure to BuP and PrP significantly increased phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization to the outer membranes of RBCs. PS externalization by BuP was found to be mediated by increasing intracellular Ca2+ levels in RBCs. The morphological changes in BuP-treated RBCs were observed under an electron microscope. The BuP-exposed RBCs showed increased thrombin generation and adhesion to endothelial cells. Additionally, the externalization of PS exposure and thrombin generation in BuP-treated RBCs were more susceptible to high shear stress, which mimics blood turbulence under pathological conditions. Collectively, we observed that BuP induced morphological and functional changes in RBCs, especially under high shear stress, suggesting that BuP may contribute to the thrombotic risk via procoagulant activity in RBCs.

Protective effects of lycopene on TiO2 nanoparticle-induced damage in the liver of mice

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO₂ ) is one of the most widely used and produced nanomaterials. Studies have demonstrated that nano-TiO₂ could induce hepatotoxicity through oxidative stress, and lycopene has strong antioxidant capacity. The present study aimed to explore if lycopene protects the liver of mice from nano-TiO₂ damage. Ninety-six ICR mice were randomly divided into eight groups. They were control group, nano-TiO₂ -treated group (50 mg/kg BW), lycopene-treated groups (5, 20, and 40 mg/kg BW), and 50 mg/kg BW nano-TiO₂ - and lycopene-co-treated groups (nano-TiO₂  + 5 mg/kg BW of lycopene, nano-TiO₂  + 20 mg/kg BW of lycopene, nano-TiO₂  + 40 mg/kg BW of lycopene). After treated by gavage for 30 days, the histopathology of the liver was observed. Liver function was evaluated using changes in serum biochemical indicators of the liver (AST, ALT, ALP); and the level of ROS was indirectly reflected by the level of SOD, GSH-Px, MDA, GSH, and T-AOC. TUNEL assay was performed to examine the apoptosis of hepatocytes. Proteins of p53, cleaved-caspase 9, cleaved-caspase 3, Bcl-2, and Bax as well as p38 were detected. Results showed that lycopene alleviated the liver pathological damage and reduced the injury to liver function induced by nano-TiO₂ , as well as decreased nano-TiO₂ -induced ROS. Meanwhile, lycopene mitigated apoptosis resulting from nano-TiO₂ , accompanied by the reversed expression of apoptosis-related proteins. Furthermore, lycopene significantly reversed the upregulation of p-p38 induced by nano-TiO₂ . In conclusion, this study demonstrated that nano-TiO₂ resulted in hepatocyte apoptosis through ROS/ROS-p38 MAPK pathway and led to liver function injury. Lycopene protected mice liver against the hepatotoxicity of nano-TiO₂ through antioxidant property.

Hemolytic Activity of Nanoparticles as a Marker of Their Hemocompatibility

The potential use of nanomaterials in medicine offers opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches to treating complex disorders. For that reason, a new branch of science, named nanotoxicology, which aims to study the dangerous effects of nanomaterials on human health and on the environment, has recently emerged. However, the toxicity and risk associated with nanomaterials are unclear or not completely understood. The development of an adequate experimental strategy for assessing the toxicity of nanomaterials may include a rapid/express method that will reliably, quickly, and cheaply make an initial assessment. One possibility is the characterization of the hemocompatibility of nanomaterials, which includes their hemolytic activity as a marker. In this review, we consider various factors affecting the hemolytic activity of nanomaterials and draw the reader's attention to the fact that the formation of a protein corona around a nanoparticle can significantly change its interaction with the red cell. This leads us to suggest that the nanomaterial hemolytic activity in the buffer does not reflect the situation in the blood plasma. As a recommendation, we propose studying the hemocompatibility of nanomaterials under more physiologically relevant conditions, in the presence of plasma proteins in the medium and under mechanical stress.

Amine-modified nanoplastics promote the procoagulant activation of isolated human red blood cells and thrombus formation in rats

Background

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) formed from decomposed plastic are increasing environmental threats. Although MPs and NPs exposed through various routes enter the systemic circulation, the potential toxicity of those is largely unknown. We investigated whether polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs) promote the coagulation activity of red blood cells (RBCs).

Results

We tested several types of PS-NPs using human RBCs and found that amine-modified 100 nm PS-NPs were the most potent. We measured the uptake of PS-NPs using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Electron microscopy revealed morphological changes of RBCs by PS-NPs. PS-NPs induced the externalization of phosphatidylserine, generation of microvesicles in RBCs, and perturbations in the intracellular microenvironment. PS-NPs increased the activity of scramblases responsible for phospholipid translocation in RBCs. PS-NPs modulated the functional interaction to adjacent tissues and coagulation cascade, enhancing RBC adhesion and thrombin generation. Our observations in human RBCs were consistent with those in isolated rat RBCs, showing no inter-species differences. In rat venous thrombosis models, the intravenous administration of PS-NPs enhanced thrombus formation.

Conclusion

Amine-modified PS-NPs induce the prothrombotic activation of RBCs causing thrombus formation. We believe that our study will contribute to understanding the potential toxicity of amine-modified polystyrene particles in blood cells and cardiovascular systems.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-022-00500-y.

Combination of Paraconiothyrium brasiliense fabricated titanium dioxide nanoparticle and antibiotics enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm properties: A toxicity evaluation

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) causes global consequences through increased mortality and economic loss. Antimicrobial drugs including nanomaterials are an emerging environmental impact. Hence, this work aimed to synthesize and characterize the titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) using the aqueous extract of endophytic fungus Paraconiothyrium brasiliense (Pb) for enhancing the antibacterial efficiency of existing standard antibiotics at minimum concentration. The FTIR and XRD results confirmed the capping of functional molecules and the crystalline nature of Pb-TiO2 NPs. The spherical-shaped TiO2 NPs with the size of 57.39 ± 13.65 nm were found in TEM analysis. The average hydrodynamic size (68.43 ± 1.49 d. nm) and the zeta potential (-19.6 ± 1.49 mV) was confirmed the stability of Pb-TiO2 NPs. Antibacterial studies revealed that bare Pb-TiO2 NPs (20 μg/mL) did not exhibit significant antibacterial activity while combination of TCH + Pb-TiO2 NPs considerably increased the inhibition of E. coli biofilm evidenced by CLSM and SEM analysis. Further, Pb-TiO₂ NPs (100 μg/mL) were found to be moderately toxic to cell line (NIH3T3), red blood cells (RBC), and egg embryos. Hence, this study concluded that <50 μg/mL of TiO₂ NPs can be mixed with antibiotics for enhanced antibacterial application thereby minimizing the AMR and the environmental toxicity.

Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles on Mammalian Cell Cycle In Vitro: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Although most studies that explore the cytotoxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO₂) have focused on cell viability and oxidative stress, the cell cycle, a basic process of cell life, can also be affected. However, the results on the effects of nano-TiO₂ on mammalian cell cycle are still inconsistent. A systematic review and meta-analysis were therefore performed in this research based on the effects of nano-TiO₂ on the mammalian cell cycle in vitro to explore whether nano-TiO₂ can induce cell cycle arrest. Meanwhile, the impact of physicochemical properties of nano-TiO₂ on the cell cycle in vitro was investigated, and the response of normal cells and cancer cells was compared. A total of 33 articles met the eligibility criteria after screening. We used Review Manager 5.4 and Stata 15.1 for analysis. The results showed an increased percentage of cells in the sub-G1 phase and an upregulation of the p53 gene after being exposed to nano-TiO₂. Nevertheless, nano-TiO₂ had no effect on cell percentage in other phases of the cell cycle. Furthermore, subgroup analysis revealed that the cell percentage in both the sub-G1 phase of normal cells and S phase of cancer cells were significantly increased under anatase-form nano-TiO₂ treatment. Moreover, nano-TiO₂ with a particle size <25 nm or exposure duration of nano-TiO₂ more than 24 h induced an increased percentage of normal cells in the sub-G1 phase. In addition, the cell cycle of cancer cells was arrested in the S phase no matter if the exposure duration of nano-TiO₂ was more than 24 h or the exposure concentration was over 50 μg/mL. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that nano-TiO₂ disrupted the cell cycle in vitro. The cell cycle arrest induced by nano-TiO₂ varies with cell status and physicochemical properties of nano-TiO₂.

Eryptosis is an indicator of hematotoxicity in the risk assessment of environmental amorphous silica nanoparticles exposure: The role of macromolecule corona

Silica nanoparticles (SiO₂ NPs) have been widely manufactured for various applications and unintentionally generated in various industrial processes. SiO₂ NPs exposure is potentially hazardous to human health. Incremental evidence has indicated the presence of SiO₂ NPs in systemic circulation, which warranted their interaction with blood components. Due to the obvious weakness of hemolysis in the risk assessment of environmental NPs, we for the first time use eryptosis as a sensitive indicator to assess the hematotoxicity of SiO₂ NPs. In vitro results showed that the exposure of erythrocytes to pristine SiO₂ NPs resulted in typical features of eryptosis, including oxidative stress, calcium influx, phosphatidylserine externalization and hemolysis. However, SiO₂ NPs covered with mouse plasma (SiO₂@MP) or grafted with polyvinylpyrrolidone (SiO₂@PVP) did not stimulate eryptosis. Interestingly, neither bare nor macromolecule-decolorated SiO₂ NPs caused eryptosis in our in vivo mouse model, highlighting the protective role of coronal proteins on the amelioration of SiO₂ NPs-induced hematotoxicity. These results emphasized the influences of surface modification on the toxicity of environmental NPs.

Food-Grade Titanium Dioxide Induces Toxicity in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and Acute Hepatic and Pulmonary Responses in Mice

Food-grade titanium dioxide (E171) contains variable percentages of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs), posing concerns for its potential effects on human and animal health. Despite many studies, the actual relationship between the physicochemical properties of E171 NPs and their interaction with biological targets is still far from clear. We evaluated the impact of acute E171 administration on invertebrate and vertebrate animals. In the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, the administration of up to 1.0 mg/mL of E171 did not affect the worm’s viability and lifespan, but significantly impaired its pharyngeal function, reproduction, and development. We also investigated whether the intravenous administration of E171 in mice (at the dose of 6 mg/kg/body weight) could result in an acute over-absorption of filter organs. A significant increase of hepatic titanium concentration and the formation of microgranulomas were observed. Interstitial inflammation and parenchymal modification were found in the lungs, coupled with titanium accumulation. This was probably due to the propensity of TiO₂ NPs to agglomerate, as demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy experiments showing that the incubation of E171 with serum promoted the formation of compact clusters. Overall, these data emphasize the actual risk for human and animal exposure to E171.

TMEM16F mediated phosphatidylserine exposure and microparticle release on erythrocyte contribute to hypercoagulable state in hyperuricemia

The link between hyperuricemia (HUA) and the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been well established. However, the mechanisms of thrombus generation and the effect of HUA on procoagulant activity (PCA) of erythrocytes remain unclear no matter in uremia or hyperuricemia. Here, phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure, microparticles (MPs) release, cytosolic Ca2+, TMEM16F expression, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation of erythrocyte were detected by flow cytometer. PCA was assessed by coagulation time, purified coagulation complex and fibrin production assays. The fibrin formation was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We found that PS exposure, MPs generation, TMEM16F expression and consequent PCA of erythrocyte in HUA patients significantly increased compared to those in healthy volunteers. Furthermore, high UA induced PS exposure, and MPs release of erythrocyte in concentration and time-dependent manners in vitro, which enhanced the PCA of erythrocyte and was inhibited by lactadherin, a PS inhibitor. Additionally, using SEM, we also observed compact fibrin clots with highly-branched networks and thin fibers supported by red blood cells (RBCs) and RBC-derived MPs (RMPs). Importantly, we demonstrated UA enhanced the production of ROS and lipid peroxidation and reduced the generation of glutathione (GSH) of erythrocyte, which enhanced TMEM16F activity and followed PS externalization and RMPs formation. Collectively, these results suggest that Ca2+-dependent TMEM16F activation may be responsible for UA-induced PS exposure and MPs release of RBC, which thereby contribute to the prothrombotic risk in HUA.

The ancillary effects of nanoparticles and their implications for nanomedicine

Nanoparticles are often engineered as a scaffolding system to combine targeting, imaging and/or therapeutic moieties into a unitary agent. However, mostly overlooked, the nanomaterial itself interacts with biological systems exclusive of application-specific particle functionalization. This nanoparticle biointerface has been found to elicit specific biological effects, which we term 'ancillary effects'. In this Review, we describe the current state of knowledge of nanobiology gleaned from existing studies of ancillary effects with the objectives to describe the potential of nanoparticles to modulate biological effects independently of any engineered function; evaluate how these effects might be relevant for nanomedicine design and functional considerations, particularly how they might be useful to inform clinical decision-making; identify potential clinical harm that arises from adverse nanoparticle interactions with biology; and, finally, highlight the current lack of knowledge in this area as both a barrier and an incentive to the further development of nanomedicine.

Raman Spectroscopic Study of TiO2 Nanoparticles' Effects on the Hemoglobin State in Individual Red Blood Cells

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is considered to be a nontoxic material and is widely used in a number of everyday products, such as sunscreen. TiO₂ nanoparticles (NP) are also considered as prospective agents for photodynamic therapy and drug delivery. These applications require an understanding of the potential effects of TiO₂ on the blood system and its components upon administration. In the presented work, we analyze the interaction of TiO₂ nanoparticles of different crystal phases (anatase and rutile) with individual rat Red Blood Cells (RBC) and the TiO₂ influence on the oxygenation state and functionality of RBC, estimated via analysis of Raman spectra of Hemoglobin (Hb) and their distribution along individual RBC. Raman spectral signals also allow localization of the TiO₂ NP on the RBC. No penetration of the NP inside RBC was observed; however, both kinds of TiO₂ NP adsorbed on the RBC membrane can affect the Hb state. Mechanisms involving the NP–membrane–Hb interaction, resulting in partial deoxygenation of Hb and TiO₂ photothermal effect on Hb under Raman laser excitation, are suggested. The possible influence on the safety of TiO₂ use in advanced medical application, especially on the safety and efficiency of photothermal therapy, is discussed.