Signal peptide replacement resulted in recombinant homologous expression of laccase Lcc8 in Coprinopsis cinerea

Laccase Functional Analysis: Substrates, Activity Assays, Challenges, and Prospects

Enzyme functional analysis is a multifaceted process that can be used for various purposes, such as screening for specific activities, as well as developing, optimising, and validating processes or final products. Functional analysis methods are crucial for assessing enzyme performance and catalytic properties. Laccase, a well-known blue multi-copper oxidase, holds immense potential in diverse industries such as pharmaceuticals, paper and pulp, food and beverages, textiles, and biorefineries due to its clean oxidation process and versatility in handling a wide range of substrates. Despite its prominence, the use of laccase encounters challenges in selecting appropriate functional analysis substrates and methods. This review delves into the substrates utilised in qualitative and quantitative techniques for laccase activity analysis. Although laccase catalyses mono-electron oxidation of aromatic hydroxyl, amine, and thiol compounds efficiently, using molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor, the review identifies limitations in the specificity of the commonly employed substrates, concerns regarding the stability of certain compounds and highlights potential strategies.

An apoptosis-inducing factor controls programmed cell death and laccase expression during fungal interactions

Apoptotic-like programmed cell death (PCD) is one of the main strategies for fungi to resist environmental stresses and maintain homeostasis. The apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) has been shown in different fungi to trigger PCD through upregulating reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study identified a mitochondrial localized AIF homolog, CcAIF1, from Coprinopsis cinerea monokaryon Okayama 7. Heterologous overexpression of CcAIF1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae caused apoptotic-like PCD of the yeast cells. Ccaif1 was increased in transcription when C. cinerea interacted with Gongronella sp. w5, accompanied by typical apoptotic-like PCD in C. cinerea, including phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation. Decreased mycelial ROS levels were observed in Ccaif1 silenced C. cinerea transformants during cocultivation, as well as reduction of the apoptotic levels, mycelial growth, and asexual sporulation. By comparison, Ccaif1 overexpression led to the opposite phenotypes. Moreover, the transcription and expression levels of laccase Lcc9 decreased by Ccaif1 silencing but increased firmly in Ccaif1 overexpression C. cinerea transformants in coculture. Thus, in conjunction with our previous report that intracellular ROS act as signal molecules to stimulate defense responses, we conclude that CcAIF1 is a regulator of ROS to promote apoptotic-like PCD and laccase expression in fungal-fungal interactions. In an axenic culture of C. cinerea, CcAIF1 overexpression and H2O2 stimulation together increased laccase secretion with multiplied production yield. The expression of two other normally silent isozymes, Lcc8 and Lcc13, was unexpectedly triggered along with Lcc9. KEY POINTS: • Mitochondrial CcAIF1 induces PCD during fungal-fungal interactions • CcAIF1 is a regulator of ROS to trigger the expression of Lcc9 for defense • CcAIF1 overexpression and H2O2 stimulation dramatically increase laccase production.

Bifunctional Sesquiterpene/Diterpene Synthase Agr2 from Cyclocybe aegerita Gives Rise to the Novel Diterpene Cyclocybene

Cyclocybe aegerita is a model mushroom belonging to the fungal phylum Basidiomycota. Among others, C. aegerita is known for its diverse terpenome, containing various volatile and nonvolatile terpenes and terpenoids. Here, we deepen the knowledge on their biosynthetic pathways by studying the terpene synthase Agr2 in detail. In contrast to previous studies, the heterologous production of Agr2 in the agaric host Coprinopsis cinerea revealed the production of two terpenes, one of which was the already known sesquiterpene viridiflorene. The other one was a so far unknown diterpene that had to be isolated and purified by means of preparative RP-HPLC for structure elucidation. 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments revealed the compound as the novel diterpene cyclocybene, pointing to the bifunctionality of Agr2 to produce both a sesquiterpene and a diterpene.

Enhanced extracellular production of laccase in Coprinopsis cinerea by silencing chitinase gene

Laccase, a copper-containing polyphenol oxidase, is an important green biocatalyst. In this study, Laccase Lcc5 was homologous recombinantly expressed in Coprinopsis cinerea and a novel strategy of silencing chitinase gene expression was used to enhance recombinant Lcc5 extracellular yield. Two critical chitinase genes, ChiEn1 and ChiE2, were selected by analyzing the transcriptome data of C. cinerea FA2222, and their silent expression was performed by RNA interference (RNAi). It was found that silencing either ChiEn1 or ChiE2 reduced sporulation and growth rate, and increased cell wall sensitivity, but had no significant effect on mycelial branching. Among them, the extracellular laccase activity of the ChiE2-silenced engineered strain Cclcc5-antiChiE2-5 and the control Cclcc5-13 reached the highest values (38.2 and 25.5 U/mL, respectively) at 250 and 150 rpm agitation speeds, corresponding to productivity of 0.35 and 0.19 U/mL·h, respectively, in a 3-L fermenter culture. Moreover, since Cclcc5-antiChiE2-5 could withstand greater shear forces, its extracellular laccase activity was 2.6-fold higher than that of Cclcc5-13 when the agitation speed was all at 250 rpm. To our knowledge, this is the first report of enhanced recombinant laccase production in C. cinerea by silencing the chitinase gene. This study will pave the way for laccase industrial production and accelerate the development of a C. cinerea high-expression system. KEY POINTS: • ChiEn1 and ChiE2 are critical chitinase genes in C. cinerea FA2222 genome. • Chitinase gene silencing enhanced the tolerance of C. cinerea to shear forces. • High homologous production of Lcc5 is achieved by fermentation in a 3-L fermenter.

pH Distribution along Growing Fungal Hyphae at Microscale

Creating unique microenvironments, hyphal surfaces and their surroundings allow for spatially distinct microbial interactions and functions at the microscale. Using a microfluidic system and pH-sensitive whole-cell bioreporters (Synechocystis sp. PCC6803) attached to hyphae, we spatially resolved the pH along surfaces of growing hyphae of the basidiomycete Coprinopsis cinerea. Time-lapse microscopy analysis of ratiometric fluorescence signals of >2400 individual bioreporters revealed an overall pH drop from 6.3 ± 0.4 (n = 2441) to 5.0 ± 0.3 (n = 2497) within 7 h after pH bioreporter loading to hyphal surfaces. The pH along hyphal surfaces varied significantly (p < 0.05), with pH at hyphal tips being on average ~0.8 pH units lower than at more mature hyphal parts near the entrance of the microfluidic observation chamber. Our data represent the first dynamic in vitro analysis of surface pH along growing hyphae at the micrometre scale. Such knowledge may improve our understanding of spatial, pH-dependent hyphal processes, such as the degradation of organic matter or mineral weathering.

The production of laccases by white-rot fungi under solid-state fermentation conditions

Laccases (E.C. 1.10.3.2) produced by white-rot fungi (WRF) can be widely used, but the high cost prevents their use in large-scale industrial processes. Finding a solution to the problem could involve laccase production by solid-state fermentation (SSF) simulating the natural growth conditions for WRF. SSF offers several advantages over conventional submerged fermentation (SmF), such as higher efficiency and productivity of the process and pollution reduction. The aim of this review is therefore to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge about the laccase production by WRF under SSF conditions. The focus is on variations in the up-stream process, fermentation and down-stream process and their impact on laccase activity. The variations of up-stream processing involve inoculum preparation, inoculation of the medium and formulation of the propagation and production media. According to the studies, the production process can be shortened to 5-7 days by the selection of a suitable combination of lignocellulosic material and laccase producer without the need for any additional components of the culture medium. Efficient laccase production was achieved by valorisation of wastes as agro-food, municipal wastes or waste generated from wood processing industries. This leads to a reduction of costs and an increase in competitiveness compared to other commonly used methods and/or procedures. There will be significant challenges and opportunities in the future, where SSF could become more efficient and bring the enzyme production to a higher level, especially in new biorefineries, bioreactors and biomolecular/genetic engineering.

Expression, secretion and functional characterization of three laccases in E. coli

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) are a group of molecules that can influence hormonal balance, causing disturbance of the reproductive system and other health problems. Despite the efforts to eliminate EDC in the environment, all current approaches are inefficient and expensive. In previous research, studies revealed that laccase-producing microorganisms may be a potential candidate for EDC degradation, as laccases have been found to be able to degrade many kinds of EDCs effectively and steadily. Here, we created two recombinant laccases, each fused with secretion peptide, Novel Signal Peptide 4 (NSP4), and expressed them in Escherichia coli (E. coli, BL21), together with one laccase without secretion peptide. We first optimized the culture condition of expressing these laccases. Then, we test the activity of the recombinant laccases of decolorizing of a synthetic dye, indigo carmine. Finally, we confirmed the secreted can degrade one of the EDCs, β-estradiol, showing the potential of using the laccase secretion system to degrade toxic compounds.

Illuminate the hidden: in vivo mapping of microscale pH in the mycosphere using a novel whole-cell biosensor

The pH of an environment is both a driver and the result of diversity and functioning of microbial habitats such as the area affected by fungal hyphae (mycosphere). Here we used a novel pH-sensitive bioreporter, Synechocystis sp. PCC6803_peripHlu, and ratiometric fluorescence microscopy, to spatially and temporally resolve the mycosphere pH at the micrometre scale. Hyphae of the basidiomycete Coprionopsis cinerea were allowed to overgrow immobilised and homogeneously embedded pH bioreporters in an agarose microcosm. Signals of >700 individual cells in an area of 0.4 × 0.8 mm were observed over time and used to create highly resolved (3 × 3 µm) pH maps using geostatistical approaches. C. cinerea changed the pH of the agarose from 6.9 to ca. 5.0 after 48 h with hyphal tips modifying pH in their vicinity up to 1.8 mm. pH mapping revealed distinct microscale spatial variability and temporally stable gradients between pH 4.4 and 5.8 over distances of ≈20 µm. This is the first in vivo mapping of a mycosphere pH landscape at the microscale. It underpins the previously hypothesised establishment of pH gradients serving to create spatially distinct mycosphere reaction zones.

Production, partial purification and characterization of ligninolytic enzymes from selected basidiomycetes mushroom fungi

In recent years, many research on the quantity of lignocellulosic waste have been developed. The production, partial purification, and characterisation of ligninolytic enzymes from various fungi are described in this work. On the 21st day of incubation in Potato Dextrose (PD) broth, Hypsizygus ulmarius developed the most laccase (14.83 × 10⁻⁶ IU/ml) and manganese peroxidase (24.11 × 10⁻⁶ IU/ml), while Pleurotus florida produced the most lignin peroxidase (19.56 × ⁻⁶ IU/ml). Laccase (Lac), lignin peroxidase (LiP), and manganese peroxidase (MnP), all generated by selected basidiomycetes mushroom fungi, were largely isolated using ammonium sulphate precipitation followed by dialysis. Laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase purification findings indicated 1.83, 2.13, and 1.77 fold purity enhancements, respectively. Specific activity of purified laccase enzyme preparations ranged from 305.80 to 376.85 IU/mg, purified lignin peroxidase from 258.51 to 336.95 IU/mg, and purified manganese peroxidase from 253.45 to 529.34 IU/mg. H. ulmarius laccase (376.85 IU/mg) with 1.83 fold purification had the highest specific activity of all the ligninolytic enzymes studied, followed by 2.13 fold purification in lignin peroxidase (350.57 IU/mg) and manganese peroxidase (529.34 IU/mg) with 1.77-fold purification. Three notable bands with molecular weights ranging from 43 to 68 kDa and a single prominent band with a molecular weight of 97.4 kDa were identified on a Native PAGE gel from mycelial proteins of selected mushroom fungus. The SDS PAGE profiles of the mycelial proteins from the selected mushroom fungus were similar to the native PAGE. All three partially purified ligninolytic isozymes display three bands in native gel electrophoresis, with only one prominent band in enzyme activity staining. The 43 kDa, 55 kDa, and 68 kDa protein bands correspond to laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase, respectively.

Mind the mushroom: natural product biosynthetic genes and enzymes of Basidiomycota

Covering: up to September 2020 Mushroom-forming fungi of the division Basidiomycota have traditionally been recognised as prolific producers of structurally diverse and often bioactive secondary metabolites, using the methods of chemistry for research. Over the past decade, -omics technologies were applied on these fungi, and sophisticated heterologous gene expression platforms emerged, which have boosted research into the genetic and biochemical basis of the biosyntheses. This review provides an overview on experimentally confirmed natural product biosyntheses of basidiomycete polyketides, amino acid-derived products, terpenoids, and volatiles. We also present challenges and solutions particular to natural product research with these fungi. 222 references are cited.