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Li Y, Jiao H, Zhang H, Wang X, Fu Y, Wang Q, Liu H, Yong YC, Guo J, Liu J. Biosafety consideration of nanocellulose in biomedical applications: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 265:130900. [PMID: 38499126 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Nanocellulose-based biomaterials have gained significant attention in various fields, especially in medical and pharmaceutical areas, due to their unique properties, including non-toxicity, high specific surface area, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and abundant feasible and sophisticated strategies for functional modification. The biosafety of nanocellulose itself is a prerequisite to ensure the safe and effective application of biomaterials as they interact with living cells, tissues, and organs at the nanoscale. Potential residual endogenous impurities and exogenous contaminants could lead to the failure of the intended functionalities or even serious health complications if they are not adequately removed and assessed before use. This review summarizes the sources of impurities in nanocellulose that may pose potential hazards to their biosafety, including endogenous impurities that co-exist in the cellulosic raw materials themselves and exogenous contaminants caused by external exposure. Strategies to reduce or completely remove these impurities are outlined and classified as chemical, physical, biological, and combined methods. Additionally, key points that require careful consideration in the interpretation of the biosafety evaluation outcomes were discussed to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the nanocellulose-based biomaterials in medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Haixin Jiao
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Hongxing Zhang
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Xiangyu Wang
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yinyi Fu
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Huan Liu
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yang-Chun Yong
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Jiaqi Guo
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources and International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment and Safety Engineering, c/o School of Emergency Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
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Li W, Chen S, Hong X, Fang M, Zong W, Li X, Wang J. The molecular interaction of three haloacetic acids with bovine serum albumin and the underlying mechanisms. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.120976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Wang J, Zhang H, Zheng X, Liu R, Zong W. In vitro toxicity and molecular interacting mechanisms of chloroacetic acid to catalase. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 189:109981. [PMID: 31812021 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chloroacetic acid (CAA), one of typical disinfection by-products (DBPs), has attracted considerable concerns for its biological safety. Antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) plays a crucial part in the regulation of redox state balance. Herein, CAA was used to test its adverse effects on CAT and explore the underlying mechanism. The cell viability of mouse primary hepatocytes decreased under CAA exposure. A bell-shaped response to CAA exposure was observed in intracellular CAT activity, whose change was partly influenced by molecular CAT activity. CAA binds to CAT mainly via van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds with a stoichiometry of 9.2. The binding caused structural changes in CAT with the unfolding of polypeptide chains and the decrease of α-helical content. CAA interacts with the amino acid residues surrounding the active sites and substrate channel of CAT. These interactions result in the decrease of molecular CAT activity, which could be restored by high ionic strength. This study has provided a combined molecular and cellular tactics for studying the adverse effects of DBPs on biomarkers and the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, 30# Qingquan Road, Yantai, 264005, PR China.
| | - Hongfa Zhang
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, 30# Qingquan Road, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Xiaolin Zheng
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, 30# Qingquan Road, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Rutao Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, China -America CRC for Environment & Health, Shandong Province, 72# Jimo Binhai Road, Qingdao, Shandong, 266237, PR China
| | - Wansong Zong
- College of Population, Resources and Environment, Shandong Normal University, 88# East Wenhua Road, Jinan, 250014, PR China
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Dote T, Kono K, Usuda K, Shimizu H, Tanimoto Y, Dote E, Hayashi S. Systemic effects and skin injury after experimental dermal exposure to monochloroacetic acid. Toxicol Ind Health 2016; 19:165-9. [PMID: 15747777 DOI: 10.1191/0748233703th191oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
There have been many fatal occupational accidents of skin exposure to monochloroacetic acid (MCA). However, there have been no reports of dermatological findings and the lethal consequences have not yet been demonstrated. Therefore, harmful local and systemic effects were investigated after dermal exposure to MCA. A 0.5 mL aliquot of MCA solution (40% w/w) was applied to the abdominal skin of ten 10-week-old male SD rats under anesthesia. The exposure area (25 × 25 mm2) was 1.6% of the total surface area. The dose of MCA per area was 34.1 mg/cm2. Saline was similarly administered to 10 control rats. Histopathological findings after 10 min were observed by light microscopy. Blood samples were collected by exsanguinations from the carotid arteries after 4 h. Skin samples were collected 10 min after the initial exposure. Histological findings showed severe degeneration of collagen bundles in the epidermis and subcutaneous tissues. PCO2, HCO3−, TCO2, BE and glucose levels were decreased in the MCA group. AST, m-AST, ALT, BUN, Cr, NH3, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, RBC, Hb, Hct, total protein and albumin were increased in the MCA group. The burn was determined to be a third-degree burn on the basis of the histopathological findings. The severe toxicity was probably a consequence of the rapid permeability. Biochemical parameters were a consequence of hepatocellular injuries, renal dysfunction, dysglyconeogenesis and dysfunction of ammonia metabolism. MCA reportedly enters the TCA cycle and inhibits aconitase. MCA metabolites also inhibit pyruvate carboxylase in the gluconeogenesis pathway. Therefore, the important serum biochemical abnormalities such as hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis should be monitored to find the acute systemic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomotaro Dote
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki City, Osaka, Japan.
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Shimizu H, Dote T, Usuda K, Toshina Y, Kato J, Sakai A, Furuya E, Kono K. Therapeutic effects of glucose infusion on monochloroacetic acid exposure in rats. Toxicol Ind Health 2016; 18:389-95. [PMID: 15119527 DOI: 10.1191/0748233702th163oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The effects of glucose infusion on monochloroacetate (MCA) exposure were examined in male rats with a view toward effective clinical treatment for MCA intoxication. Rats were injected with 80 mg/kg sodium monochloroacetate (SMCA) (single lethal dose) and then infused with saline (control group) or 5% or 10% glucose solution at 2 mL/hour for ten hours. No animal in the control group survived the total 14-day follow-up period. The survival rate in 5% glucose group was 57% at ten hours; it decreased to 14% at 14 days. The survival rate in 10% glucose group was 79% at ten hours, and all rats that survived the first ten hours also survived the 14 days. Kaplan -Meier analysis showed the survival rate in 10% glucose group to be improved upon in both the 5% glucose group and the control group. Blood glucose and lactate levels were measured every hour during infusion. Blood glucose levels decreased in the control group but remained in the glucose-infused groups. Although the blood lactate level increased in each group, there was an excellent inverse linear relation between blood glucose levels and blood lactate levels. Thus, continuous parenteral infusion of glucose solution at an early stage after exposure may be an effective clinical therapy for the prevention of hypoglycaemia and metabolic lactic acidosis caused by MCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyasu Shimizu
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
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Michałowicz J, Wróblewski W, Mokra K, Maćczak A, Kwiatkowska M. Comparative study of the effect of chloro-, dichloro-, bromo-, and dibromoacetic acid on necrotic, apoptotic and morphological changes in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in vitro study). Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:1416-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Lu TH, Su CC, Tang FC, Chen CH, Yen CC, Fang KM, Lee KI, Hung DZ, Chen YW. Chloroacetic acid triggers apoptosis in neuronal cells via a reactive oxygen species-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway. Chem Biol Interact 2014; 225:1-12. [PMID: 25451595 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2014.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Chloroacetic acid (CA), a chlorinated analog of acetic acid and an environmental toxin that is more toxic than acetic, dichloroacetic, or trichloroacetic acids, is widely used in chemical industries. Furthermore, CA has been found to be the major disinfection by-products (DBPs) of drinking water. CA has been reported to be highly corrosive and to induce severe tissue injuries (including nervous system) that lead to death in mammals. However, the effects and underlying mechanisms of CA-induced neurotoxicity remain unknown. In the present study, we found that CA (0.5-2.0 mM) significantly increased LDH release, decreased the number of viable cells (cytotoxicity) and induced apoptotic events (including: increases in the numbers of apoptotic cells, the membrane externalization of phosphatidylserine (PS), and caspase-3/-7 activity) in Neuro-2a cells. CA (1.5 mM; the approximate to LD50) also triggered ER stress, which was identified by monitoring several key molecules that are involved in the unfolded protein responses (including the increase in the expressions of p-PERK, p-IRE-1, p-eIF2α, ATF-4, ATF-6, CHOP, XBP-1, GRP 78, GRP 94, and caspase-12) and calpain activity. Transfection of GRP 78- and GRP 94-specific si-RNA effectively abrogated CA-induced cytotoxicity, caspase-3/-7 and caspase-12 activity, and GRP 78 and GRP 94 expression in Neuro-2a cells. Additionally, pretreatment with 2.5 mM N-acetylcysteine (NAC; a glutathione (GSH) precursor) dramatically suppressed the increase in lipid peroxidation, cytotoxicity, apoptotic events, calpain and caspase-12 activity, and ER stress-related molecules in CA-exposed cells. Taken together, these results suggest that the higher concentration of CA exerts its cytotoxic effects in neuronal cells by triggering apoptosis via a ROS-induced ER stress signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tien-Hui Lu
- Department of Physiology and Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, No. 91 Hsueh-Shih Rd., 404 Taichung, Taiwan.
| | - Chin-Chuan Su
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Changhua Christian Hospital, No. 135 Nanxiao St., Changhua City, 500 Changhua County, Taiwan.
| | - Feng-Cheng Tang
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, No. 135 Nanxiao St., Changhua City, 500 Changhua County, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Hung Chen
- Department of Emergency, China Medical University Hospital, No. 2 Yuh-Der Rd., 404 Taichung, Taiwan.
| | - Cheng-Chieh Yen
- Department of Occupational Safety and Health, College of Health Care and Management, Chung Shan Medical University, No. 110 Section 1, Jian-Guo N. Rd., 402 Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Occupational Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, No. 110 Section 1, Jian-Guo N. Rd., 402 Taichung, Taiwan.
| | - Kai-Min Fang
- Department of Physiology and Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, No. 91 Hsueh-Shih Rd., 404 Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Otolaryngology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, No. 21, Sec. 2, Nanya S. Rd., Banciao Dist., New Taipei City 220, Taiwan.
| | - kuan-I Lee
- Department of Emergency, Taichung Tzuchi Hospital, The Buddhist Tzuchi Medical Foundation, No. 66 Section 1, Fongsing Rd., Tanzih Township, Taichung 427, Taiwan.
| | - Dong-Zong Hung
- Division of Toxicology, Trauma & Emergency Center, China Medical University Hospital, No. 2 Yuh-Der Rd., 404 Taichung, Taiwan.
| | - Ya-Wen Chen
- Department of Physiology and Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, No. 91 Hsueh-Shih Rd., 404 Taichung, Taiwan.
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Chen CH, Chen SJ, Su CC, Yen CC, Tseng TJ, Jinn TR, Tang FC, Chen KL, Su YC, Lee KI, Hung DZ, Huang CF. Chloroacetic acid induced neuronal cells death through oxidative stress-mediated p38-MAPK activation pathway regulated mitochondria-dependent apoptotic signals. Toxicology 2012; 303:72-82. [PMID: 23103613 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2012.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Chloroacetic acid (CA), a toxic chlorinated analog of acetic acid, is widely used in chemical industries as an herbicide, detergent, and disinfectant, and chemical intermediates that are formed during the synthesis of various products. In addition, CA has been found as a by-product of chlorination disinfection of drinking water. However, there is little known about neurotoxic injuries of CA on the mammalian, the toxic effects and molecular mechanisms of CA-induced neuronal cell injury are mostly unknown. In this study, we examined the cytotoxicity of CA on cultured Neuro-2a cells and investigated the possible mechanisms of CA-induced neurotoxicity. Treatment of Neuro-2a cells with CA significantly reduced the number of viable cells (in a dose-dependent manner with a range from 0.1 to 3mM), increased the generation of ROS, and reduced the intracellular levels of glutathione depletion. CA also increased the number of sub-G1 hypodiploid cells; increased mitochondrial dysfunction (loss of MMP, cytochrome c release, and accompanied by Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 down-regulation and Bax up-regulation), and activated the caspase cascades activations, which displayed features of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway. These CA-induced apoptosis-related signals were markedly prevented by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Moreover, CA activated the JNK and p38-MAPK pathways, but did not that ERK1/2 pathway, in treated Neuro-2a cells. Pretreatment with NAC and specific p38-MAPK inhibitor (SB203580), but not JNK inhibitor (SP600125) effectively abrogated the phosphorylation of p38-MAPK and attenuated the apoptotic signals (including: decrease in cytotoxicity, caspase-3/-7 activation, the cytosolic cytochrome c release, and the reversed alteration of Bcl-2 and Bax mRNA) in CA-treated Neuro-2a cells. Taken together, these data suggest that oxidative stress-induced p38-MAPK activated pathway-regulated mitochondria-dependent apoptosis plays an important role in CA-caused neuronal cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hung Chen
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan
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Toshina Y, Dote T, Usuda K, Shimizu H, Tominaga M, Kono K. Hepatic injury and gluconeogenesis after subcutaneous injection of monochloroacetic acid in rats. Environ Health Prev Med 2012; 9:58-62. [PMID: 21432300 DOI: 10.1007/bf02897933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2003] [Accepted: 01/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Monochloroacetic acid (MCA) is corrosive to skin, and causes not only chemical injury but also fatal systemic poisoning. Little is known about the cause of death. We studied the acute toxicity of MCA before clinical symptoms appeared in fasting rats. METHODS Blood samples were analyzed 2 h after subcutaneous MCA injection (Ld(90): 162 mg/ml kg body weight). Control rats were injected with saline. RESULTS Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were about 1.5-fold higher than in the controls, and mitochondrial AST (mAST) was 2-fold higher. Blood urea nitrogen and creatinine were significantly increased, while serum glucose was significantly decreased in the treated group. Lactate was 6-fold higher and pyruvate was 13-fold higher than in the controls. CONCLUSIONS MCA caused injury to the liver and kidneys but these injuries were slight. However, the larger increase in mAST indicated that hepatocellular mitochondria were selectively targeted. Hepatocellular mitochondrial injury decreased gluconeogenesis and caused hypoglycemia and extremely high levels of lactate and pyruvate. Hypoglycemia and lactic acidosis were insidious before the critical symptoms appeared and this combination accelerated to death, affecting other organs such as the heart and brain. Nosotropic therapy of these abnormalities up to the appearance of symptoms may help to establish an early therapy for skin exposure to MCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumi Toshina
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Osaka Medical College, 2-7 Daigakumachi, 569-8686, Takatsuki City, Osaka, Japan,
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Hamelin EI, Mawhinney DB, Parry R, Kobelski RJ. Quantification of monofluoroacetate and monochloroacetate in human urine by isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:1045-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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