c-Jun and JunB Are Essential for Hypoglycemia-MediatedVEGFInduction

Serum vascular endothelial growth factor is associated with cardiovascular involvement and response to therapy in Erdheim-Chester disease

Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD) is a rare histiocytosis, considered to be an inflammatory myeloid neoplasm. Tropism for specific involvements of the disease remains unexplained. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF) is implicated in cancer pathophysiology and mutations of the RAS oncogene have been shown to induce upregulation of VEGF gene expression. We therefore hypothesized that VEGF might play a particular role in ECD pathophysiology. We conducted a retrospective, single-center study to assess serum VEGF (sVEGF) concentrations and determine whether they were associated with the characteristics of ECD patients, and to determine whether VEGF was expressed by histiocytes. We evaluated 247 ECD patients, 53.4% of whom had sVEGF levels above the normal range (>500 pg/mL). Patients with high sVEGF levels more frequently had cardiac and vascular involvement (58.3% vs. 41.4%, P=0.008 and 70.5% vs. 48.3%, P=0.0004, respectively). In treatment-naïve patients (n=135), the association of C-reactive protein >5 mg/L and sVEGF >500 pg/mL was strongly associated with vascular involvement (odds ratio=5.54 [95% confidence interval: 2.39-13.62], P<0.001), and independently associated with cardiac involvement (odds ratio=3.18 [95% confidence interval: 1.34-7.83], P=0.010) after adjustment for the presence of the BRAF V600E mutation. Changes in sVEGF concentration on treatment were associated with a response of cardiac involvement on consecutive cardiac magnetic resonance images. All histological samples analyzed (n=24) displayed histiocytes with intracytoplasmic expression of VEGF, which was moderate to high in more than 90% of cases. Our study suggests a role for VEGF in cardiac and vascular involvement in ECD.

Transcriptional Regulation of Thrombin-Induced Endothelial VEGF Induction and Proangiogenic Response

Thrombin, the ligand of the protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1), is a well-known stimulator of proangiogenic responses in vascular endothelial cells (ECs), which are mediated through the induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). However, the transcriptional events underlying this thrombin-induced VEGF induction and angiogenic response are less well understood at present. As reported here, we conducted detailed promotor activation and signal transduction pathway studies in human microvascular ECs, to decipher the transcription factors and the intracellular signaling events underlying the thrombin and PAR-1-induced endothelial VEGF induction. We found that c-FOS is a key transcription factor controlling thrombin-induced EC VEGF synthesis and angiogenesis. Upon the binding and internalization of its G-protein-coupled PAR-1 receptor, thrombin triggers ERK1/2 signaling and activation of the nuclear AP-1/c-FOS transcription factor complex, which then leads to VEGF transcription, extracellular secretion, and concomitant proangiogenic responses of ECs. In conclusion, exposure of human microvascular ECs to thrombin triggers signaling through the PAR-1–ERK1/2–AP-1/c-FOS axis to control VEGF gene transcription and VEGF-induced angiogenesis. These observations offer a greater understanding of endothelial responses to thromboinflammation, which may help to interpret the results of clinical trials tackling the conditions associated with endothelial injury and thrombosis.

High-throughput transcriptional profiling combined with angiogenesis antibody array analysis in an orbital venous malformation cohort

Orbital venous malformations (OVMs) are the most common benign orbital vascular disorders in adults and are characterized as enlarging encapsulated vascular neoplasms. These painless lesions grow slowly and become symptomatic with proptosis or visual disturbance. However, the pathogenic mechanism and diagnostic markers of OVMs remain poorly understood. To identify potential pathways involved in OVM formation, a cDNA microarray analysis was conducted with OVM samples and normal vascular tissues. These data were deposited in the National Omics Data Encyclopedia (NODE) database (accession number: OER033009). These pathway expression data were further confirmed by reverse transcription qPCR (RT-qPCR) in an OVM cohort. To explore the diagnostic markers in OVM, an angiogenesis antibody array was analyzed. The altered factors were further validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the OVM cohort. Transcriptome screening revealed upregulated autophagy and VEGF pathways and downregulated Hippo, Wnt, hedgehog and vascular smooth muscle contraction signaling pathways in OVM samples. Furthermore, plasma EGF (p < 0.001) and Leptin (p < 0.01) levels were significantly elevated in OVM patients. Here, for the first time, we revealed the transcriptional background and plasma diagnostic markers in OVM, providing a novel understanding of OVM pathogenesis and facilitating the early diagnosis of OVM.

Physiological Role of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors as Homeostatic Regulators

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family of proteins are key regulators of physiological systems. Originally linked with endothelial function, they have since become understood to be principal regulators of multiple tissues, both through their actions on vascular cells, but also through direct actions on other tissue types, including epithelial cells, neurons, and the immune system. The complexity of the five members of the gene family in terms of their different splice isoforms, differential translation, and specific localizations have enabled tissues to use these potent signaling molecules to control how they function to maintain their environment. This homeostatic function of VEGFs has been less intensely studied than their involvement in disease processes, development, and reproduction, but they still play a substantial and significant role in healthy control of blood volume and pressure, interstitial volume and drainage, renal and lung function, immunity, and signal processing in the peripheral and central nervous system. The widespread expression of VEGFs in healthy adult tissues, and the disturbances seen when VEGF signaling is inhibited support this view of the proteins as endogenous regulators of normal physiological function. This review summarizes the evidence and recent breakthroughs in understanding of the physiology that is regulated by VEGF, with emphasis on the role they play in maintaining homeostasis. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:955-979, 2018.

Dual oxidase 2 and pancreatic adenocarcinoma: IFN-γ-mediated dual oxidase 2 overexpression results in H2O2-induced, ERK-associated up-regulation of HIF-1α and VEGF-A

Several NADPH oxidase family members, including dual oxidase 2 [DUOX2], are expressed in human tumors, particularly gastrointestinal cancers associated with long-standing chronic inflammation. We found previously that exposure of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells to the pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ increased DUOX2 expression (but not other NADPH oxidases) leading to long-lived H2O2 production. To elucidate the pathophysiology of DUOX2-mediated H2O2 formation in the pancreas further, we demonstrate here that IFN-γ-treated BxPC-3 and CFPAC-1 pancreatic cancer cells (known to increase DUOX2 expression) produce significant levels of intracellular oxidants and extracellular H2O2 which correlate with concomitant up-regulation of VEGF-A and HIF-1α transcription. These changes are not observed in the PANC-1 line that does not increase DUOX2 expression following IFN-γ treatment. DUOX2 knockdown with short interfering RNA significantly decreased IFN-γ-induced VEGF-A or HIF-1α up-regulation, as did treatment of pancreatic cancer cells with the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenylene iodonium, the multifunctional reduced thiol N-acetylcysteine, and the polyethylene glycol-modified form of the hydrogen peroxide detoxifying enzyme catalase. Increased DUOX2-related VEGF-A expression appears to result from reactive oxygen-mediated activation of ERK signaling that is responsible for AP-1-related transcriptional effects on the VEGF-A promoter. To clarify the relevance of these observations in vivo, we demonstrate that many human pre-malignant pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasms and frank pancreatic cancers express substantial levels of DUOX protein compared to histologically normal pancreatic tissues, and that expression of both DUOX2 and VEGF-A mRNAs is significantly increased in surgically-resected pancreatic cancers compared to the adjacent normal pancreas.

Protective effects of vascular endothelial growth factor in cultured brain endothelial cells against hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia is a common and serious problem among patients with type 1 diabetes receiving treatment with insulin. Clinical studies have demonstrated that hypoglycemic edema is involved in the initiation of hypoglycemic brain damage. However, the mechanisms of this edema are poorly understood. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a potent regulator of blood vessel function, has been observed an important candidate hormone induced by hypoglycemia to protect neurons by restoring plasma glucose. Whether VEGF has a protective effect against hypoglycemia-induced damage in brain endothelial cells is still unknown. To investigate the effects of hypoglycemia on cerebral microvascular endothelial cells and assess the protective effect of exogenous VEGF on endothelial cells during hypoglycemia, confluent monolayers of the brain endothelial cell line bEnd.3 were treated with normal (5.5 mM glucose), hypoglycemic (0, 0.5, 1 mM glucose) medium or hypoglycemic medium in the presence of VEGF. The results clearly showed that hypoglycemia significantly downregulated the expression of claudin-5 in bEnd.3 cells, without affecting ZO-1 and occludin expression and distribution. Besides, transendothelial permeability significantly increased under hypoglycemic conditions compared to that under control conditions. Moreover, the hypoglycemic medium in presence of VEGF decreased endothelial permeability via the inhibition of claudin-5 degradation and improved hypoglycemia-induced cell toxicity. Furthermore, Glucose transporter-1 (Glut-1) and apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 expression were significantly upregulated. Taken together, hypoglycemia can significantly increase paraendocellular permeability by downregulating claudin-5 expression. We further showed that VEGF protected brain endothelial cells against hypoglycemia by enhancing glucose passage, reducing endothelial cell death, and ameliorating paraendocellular permeability.

Jun-regulated genes promote interaction of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma with the microenvironment

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive disease with a high proliferation rate. However, the molecular and genetic features that drive the aggressive clinical behavior of DLBCL are not fully defined. Here, we have demonstrated that activated Jun signaling is a frequent event in DLBCL that promotes dissemination of malignant cells. Downregulation of Jun dramatically reduces lymphoma cell adhesion to extracellular matrix proteins, subcutaneous tumor size in nude mice, and invasive behavior, including bone marrow infiltration and interaction with bone marrow stromal cells. Furthermore, using a combination of RNA interference and gene expression profiling, we identified Jun target genes that are associated with disseminated lymphoma. Among them, ITGAV, FoxC1, and CX3CR1 are significantly enriched in patients with 2 or more extranodal sites. Our results point to activated Jun signaling as a major driver of the aggressive phenotype of DLBCL.

Roles of PI3K/Akt and c-Jun signaling pathways in human papillomavirus type 16 oncoprotein-induced HIF-1α, VEGF, and IL-8 expression and in vitro angiogenesis in non-small cell lung cancer cells

Background and Objectives

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-16 infection may be related to non-smoking associated lung cancer. Our previous studies have found that HPV-16 oncoproteins promoted angiogenesis via enhancing hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. In this study, we further investigated the roles of PI3K/Akt and c-Jun signaling pathways in it.

Methods

Human NSCLC cell lines, A549 and NCI-H460, were stably transfected with pEGFP-16 E6 or E7 plasmids. Western blotting was performed to analyze the expression of HIF-1α, p-Akt, p-P70S6K, p-P85S6K, p-mTOR, p-JNK, and p-c-Jun proteins. VEGF and IL-8 protein secretion and mRNA levels were determined by ELISA and Real-time PCR, respectively. The invitro angiogenesis was observed by human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) tube formation assay. Co-immunoprecipitation was performed to analyze the interaction between c-Jun and HIF-1α.

Results

HPV-16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins promoted the activation of Akt, P70S6K, P85S6K, mTOR, JNK, and c-Jun. LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, inhibited HPV-16 oncoprotein-induced activation of Akt, P70S6K, and P85S6K, expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, and IL-8, and invitro angiogenesis. c-Jun knockdown by specific siRNA abolished HPV-16 oncoprotein-induced HIF-1α, VEGF, and IL-8 expression and invitro angiogenesis. Additionally, HPV-16 oncoproteins promoted HIF-1α protein stability via blocking proteasome degradation pathway, but c-Jun knockdown abrogated this effect. Furthermore, HPV-16 oncoproteins increased the quantity of c-Jun binding to HIF-1α.

Conclusions

PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and c-Jun are involved in HPV-16 oncoprotein-induced HIF-1α, VEGF, and IL-8 expression and invitro angiogenesis. Moreover, HPV-16 oncoproteins promoted HIF-1α protein stability possibly through enhancing the interaction between c-Jun and HIF-1α, thus making a contribution to angiogenesis in NSCLC cells.

Role of JunB in adenosine A2B receptor-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor production

Interstitial adenosine stimulates neovascularization in part through A2B adenosine receptor-dependent upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that A2B receptors upregulate JunB, which can contribute to stimulation of VEGF production. Using the human microvascular endothelial cell line, human mast cell line, mouse cardiac Sca1-positive stromal cells, and mouse Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells, we found that adenosine receptor-dependent upregulation of VEGF production was associated with an increase in VEGF transcription, activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity, and JunB accumulation in all cells investigated. Furthermore, the expression of JunB, but not the expression of other genes encoding transcription factors from the Jun family, was specifically upregulated. In LLC cells expressing A2A and A2B receptor transcripts, only the nonselective adenosine agonist NECA (5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine), but not the selective A2A receptor agonist CGS21680 [2-p-(2-carboxyethyl) phenylethylamino-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine], significantly increased JunB reporter activity and JunB nuclear accumulation, which were inhibited by the A2B receptor antagonist PSB603 [(8-[4-[4-((4-chlorophenzyl)piperazide-1-sulfonyl)phenyl]]-1-propylxanthine]. Using activators and inhibitors of intracellular signaling, we demonstrated that A2B receptor-dependent accumulation of JunB protein and VEGF secretion share common intracellular pathways. NECA enhanced JunB binding to the murine VEGF promoter, whereas mutation of the high-affinity AP-1 site (-1093 to -1086) resulted in a loss of NECA-dependent VEGF reporter activity. Finally, NECA-dependent VEGF secretion and reporter activity were inhibited by the expression of a dominant negative JunB or by JunB knockdown. Thus, our data suggest an important role of the A2B receptor-dependent upregulation of JunB in VEGF production and possibly other AP-1-regulated events.

Elevated SP-1 transcription factor expression and activity drives basal and hypoxia-induced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in non-small cell lung cancer

VEGF plays a central role in angiogenesis in cancer. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumors have increased microvascular density, localized hypoxia, and high VEGF expression levels; however, there is a lack of understanding of how oncogenic and tumor microenvironment changes such as hypoxia lead to greater VEGF expression in lung and other cancers. We show that NSCLC cells secreted higher levels of VEGF than normal airway epithelial cells. Actinomycin D inhibited all NSCLC VEGF secretion, and VEGF minimal promoter-luciferase reporter constructs were constitutively active until the last 85 base pairs before the transcription start site containing three SP-1 transcription factor-binding sites; mutation of these VEGF promoter SP-1-binding sites eliminated VEGF promoter activity. Furthermore, dominant negative SP-1, mithramycin A, and SP-1 shRNA decreased VEGF promoter activity, whereas overexpression of SP-1 increased VEGF promoter activity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated SP-1, p300, and PCA/F histone acetyltransferase binding and histone H4 hyperacetylation at the VEGF promoter in NSCLC cells. Cultured NSCLC cells expressed higher levels of SP-1 protein than normal airway epithelial cells, and double-fluorescence immunohistochemistry showed a strong correlation between SP-1 and VEGF in human NSCLC tumors. In addition, hypoxia-driven VEGF expression in NSCLC cells was SP-1-dependent, with hypoxia increasing SP-1 activity and binding to the VEGF promoter. These studies are the first to demonstrate that overexpression of SP-1 plays a central role in hypoxia-induced VEGF secretion.

Perlecan Domain V induces VEGf secretion in brain endothelial cells through integrin α5β1 and ERK-dependent signaling pathways

Perlecan Domain V (DV) promotes brain angiogenesis by inducing VEGF release from brain endothelial cells (BECs) following stroke. In this study, we define the specific mechanism of DV interaction with the α₅β₁ integrin, identify the downstream signal transduction pathway, and further investigate the functional significance of resultant VEGF release. Interestingly, we found that the LG3 portion of DV, which has been suggested to possess most of DV’s angio-modulatory activity outside of the brain, binds poorly to α₅β₁ and induces less BEC proliferation compared to full length DV. Additionally, we implicate DV’s DGR sequence as an important element for the interaction of DV with α₅β₁. Furthermore, we investigated the importance of AKT and ERK signaling in DV-induced VEGF expression and secretion. We show that DV increases the phosphorylation of ERK, which leads to subsequent activation and stabilization of eIF4E and HIF-1α. Inhibition of ERK activity by U0126 suppressed DV-induced expression and secretion of VEGR in BECs. While DV was capable of phosphorylating AKT we show that AKT phosphorylation does not play a role in DV’s induction of VEGF expression or secretion using two separate inhibitors, LY294002 and Akt IV. Lastly, we demonstrate that VEGF activity is critical for DV increases in BEC proliferation, as well as angiogenesis in a BEC-neuronal co-culture system. Collectively, our findings expand our understanding of DV’s mechanism of action on BECs, and further support its potential as a novel stroke therapy.

PRH/Hhex controls cell survival through coordinate transcriptional regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor signaling

The proline-rich homeodomain protein (PRH) plays multiple roles in the control of gene expression during embryonic development and in the adult. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a mitogen that stimulates cell proliferation and survival via cell surface receptors including VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2. VEGF signaling is of critical importance in angiogenesis and hematopoiesis and is elevated in many tumors. Here we show that PRH binds directly to the promoter regions of the Vegf, Vegfr-1, and Vegfr-2 genes and that in each case PRH represses transcription. We demonstrate that overexpression or knockdown of PRH directly impinges on the survival of both leukemic and tumor cells and that the modulation of VEGF and VEGF receptor signaling by PRH mediates these effects. Our findings demonstrate that PRH is a key regulator of the VEGF signaling pathway and describe a mechanism whereby PRH plays an important role in tumorigenesis and leukemogenesis.

Systemic anti-VEGF treatment strongly reduces skin inflammation in a mouse model of psoriasis

Although(,) vascular remodeling is a hallmark of many chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, anti-vascular strategies to treat these conditions have received little attention to date. We investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of systemic blockade of VEGF-A by the inhibitory monoclonal antibody G6-31, employing a therapeutic trial in a mouse model of psoriasis. Simultaneous deletion of JunB and c-Jun (DKO*) in the epidermis of adult mice leads to a psoriasis-like phenotype with hyper- and parakeratosis and increased subepidermal vascularization. Moreover, an inflammatory infiltrate and elevated levels of cytokines/chemokines including TNFalpha, IL-1alpha/beta, IL-6, and the innate immune mediators IL-22, IL-23, IL-23R, and IL-12p40 are detected. Here we show that anti-VEGF antibody treatment of mice already displaying disease symptoms resulted in an overall improvement of the psoriatic lesions leading to a reduction in the number of blood vessels and a significant decrease in the size of dermal blood and lymphatic vessels. Importantly, anti-VEGF-treated mice showed a pronounced reduction of inflammatory cells within the dermis and a normalization of epidermal differentiation. These results demonstrate that systemic blockade of VEGF by an inhibitory antibody might be used to treat patients who have inflammatory skin disorders such as psoriasis.

Role of HIF-1alpha and VEGF in human mesenchymal stem cell proliferation by 17beta-estradiol: involvement of PKC, PI3K/Akt, and MAPKs

17beta-Estradiol (E(2)) is a steroid hormone well known for its roles in the regulation of various cell functions. However, the precise role that E(2) plays in the proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) has not been completely elucidated. In the present study, we examined the effects of E(2) on cell proliferation and the related signaling pathways using hMSCs. We showed that E(2), at > or =10(-9) M, significantly increased [3H]thymidine incorporation after 24 h of incubation, and E(2) also increased [3H]thymidine incorporation at >6 h. Also, E(2) significantly increased the percentage of the cell population in the S phase based on FACS analysis. Moreover, E(2) increased estrogen receptor (ER), PKC, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, and MAPK phosphorylation. Subsequently, these signaling molecules were involved in an E(2)-induced increase of [3H]thymidine incorporation. E(2) also increased hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha and VEGF protein levels. These levels of protein expression were inhibited by ICI-182,780 (10(-6) M, an ER antagonist), staurosporine and bisindolylmaleimide I (10(-6) M, a PKC inhibitor), LY-294002 (10(-6) M, a PI3K inhibitor), Akt inhibitor (10(-5) M), SP-600125 (10(-6) M, a SAPK/JNK inhibitor), and PD-98059 (10(-5) M, a p44/42 MAPKs inhibitor). In addition, HIF-1alpha small interfering (si)RNA and ICI-182,780 inhibited E(2)-induced VEGF expression and cell proliferation. VEGF siRNA also significantly inhibited E(2)-induced cell proliferation. In conclusion, E(2) partially stimulated hMSC proliferation via HIF-1alpha activation and VEGF expression through PKC, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK pathways.

JunB is a repressor of MMP-9 transcription in depolarized rat brain neurons

Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is an extracellularly operating enzyme involved in the synaptic plasticity, hippocampal-dependent long term memory and neurodegeneration. Previous studies have shown its upregulation following seizure-evoking stimuli. Herein, we show that in the rat brain, MMP-9 mRNA expression in response to pentylenetetrazole-evoked neuronal depolarization is transient. Furthermore, we demonstrate that in the rat hippocampus neuronal activation strongly induces JunB expression, simultaneously leading to an accumulation of JunB/FosB complexes onto the -88/-80 bp site of the rat MMP-9 gene promoter in vivo. Surprisingly, manipulations with JunB expression levels in activated neurons revealed its moderate repressive action onto MMP-9 gene expression. Therefore, our study documents the active repressive influence of AP-1 onto MMP-9 transcriptional regulation by the engagement of JunB.

Novel PKC signaling is required for LPS-induced soluble Flt-1 expression in macrophages

In vitro activation of macrophages by LPS induces rapid release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 receptor (sFlt-1), which are thought to be the effectors to cause sepsis. However, the signal pathway that controls the VEGF and sFlt-1 expressions in LPS-activated macrophages remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC)delta played a key role in the VEGF and sFlt-1 signaling pathway of LPS-activated macrophages. PKC is a family of serine-threonine kinases, which are classified into three major groups based on homology and cofactor requirements: conventional PKCs, novel PKCs, and atypical PKCs. In the murine RAW264.7 cells, as well as in primary human monocytes/macrophages, pretreatment with a general PKC inhibitor GF109203X or with a novel PKCdelta inhibitor rottlerin or overexpression of a kinase-inactive form of PKCdelta (K376R) eliminated LPS-induced sFlt-1 expression and augmented LPS-induced VEGF expression at the protein and the transcription levels. In contrast, Gö6976, an inhibitor for the conventional PKCs, or myristoylated PKCzeta pseudosubstrate peptide, an inhibitor for the atypical PKCs, failed to exert the same effects. These data suggest that PKCdelta signaling is involved in LPS-induced sFlt-1 expression and serves as a negative mediator in LPS-induced VEGF expression in macrophages. A novel strategy controlling the LPS-induced PKC pathways, especially the PKCdelta isoform, may be developed based on this study.

Induction of vascular endothelial growth factor by peptidyl-prolyl isomerase Pin1 in breast cancer cells

Pin1, a peptidyl-prolyl isomerase, is overexpressed in most types of cancer tissues and plays an important role in oncogenesis. We found that Pin1 increases the transcriptional activity and protein level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the human breast cancer cell line, MCF-7. Reporter gene analyses showed that Pin1 overexpression increased the reporter activities in cells transfected with reporters containing the VEGF gene promoter or with minimal reporters of activator protein-1 (AP-1) and hypoxia response element (HRE). VEGF reporter gene activity was significantly inhibited by either hypoxia-inducible factor-alpha (HIF-1alpha) siRNA or AP-1 decoy ODN. Moreover, the reporter activities of the VEGF promoter, AP-1 and HRE in Pin1-/- mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells were decreased compared with those in wild-type Pin1 MEF cells. These results imply that Pin1 stimulates VEGF expression by activating HIF-1alpha and AP-1, and suggest that Pin1 is a potential therapeutic target of angiogenesis during cancer development.

JunB is required for IgE-mediated degranulation and cytokine release of mast cells

Mast cells are effector cells of IgE-mediated immune responses frequently found at the vicinity of blood vessels, the margins of diverse tumors and at sites of potential infection and inflammation. Upon IgE-mediated stimulation, mast cells produce and secrete a broad spectrum of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators. Recent work identified JunB, a member of the AP-1 transcription factor family, as critical regulator of basal and induced expression of inflammatory mediators in fibroblasts and T cells. To study the impact of JunB on mast cell biology, we analyzed JunB-deficient mast cells. Mast cells lacking JunB display a normal in vivo maturation, and JunB-deficient bone marrow cells in vitro differentiated to mast cells show no alterations in proliferation or apoptosis. But these cells exhibit impaired IgE-mediated degranulation most likely due to diminished expression of SWAP-70, Synaptotagmin-1, and VAMP-8, and due to impaired influx of extracellular calcium. Moreover, JunB-deficient bone marrow mast cells display an altered cytokine expression profile in response to IgE stimulation. In line with these findings, the contribution of JunB-deficient mast cells to angiogenesis, as analyzed in an in vitro tube formation assay on matrigel, is severely impaired due to limiting amounts of synthesized and secreted vascular endothelial growth factor. Thus, JunB is a critical regulator of intrinsic mast cell functions including cross-talk with endothelial cells.