High-dose chemotherapy as salvage treatment in germ cell tumors: a multivariate analysis of prognostic variables

Multicenter analysis of high-dose chemotherapy regimens for the treatment of patients with refractory or recurrent germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

High-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) is an established salvage treatment for recurrent germ cell tumors (GCTs). Comparative analyses of contemporary carboplatin-based HDCT regimens are limited. This study provides a multicenter analysis of commonly used regimens.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Data from four referral centers included patients treated with HDCT for recurrent GCTs between January 2010 and January 2024. Fisher's exact test and the Wilcoxon rank sum test were used for statistical analyses. Kaplan-Meier and log-rank tests assessed relapse-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

Among 111 patients (median age 28.5 years), 76.6% had non-seminomatous GCT, and 43.2% had poor-risk disease per the International Germ Cell Cancer Collaborative Group (IGCCCG) classification. HDCT regimens included CE (50 patients; carboplatin and etoposide for two cycles) and TICE (32 patients; paclitaxel and ifosfamide, followed by carboplatin and etoposide for three cycles). HDCT was second-line in 26.1% and third-line or beyond in 73.9%. After 55.5 months' follow-up, no significant difference in RFS was observed [10.2 versus 5.9 months; hazard ratio (HR) 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54-1.51, P = 0.706]. TICE showed a trend toward longer OS (57.2 versus 19.8 months; HR 0.67, 95% CI 0.37-1.2, P = 0.18) and significantly improved OS in IGCCCG intermediate-/poor-risk patients (57.2 versus 14.0 months; HR 0.44, 95% CI 0.2-0.99, P = 0.047).

CONCLUSIONS

No significant difference in RFS or OS was observed between CE and TICE overall. However, TICE may offer more benefit to patients with higher-risk disease. Prospective studies are needed to validate these findings.

Testicular Germ Cell Tumors: A Review

Importance

Testicular cancer is the most common solid malignancy among males aged 15 to 40 years in the US, with approximately 10 000 new cases diagnosed each year. Between 90% and 95% of testicular cancers are germ cell tumors (GCTs).

Observations

The mean age at diagnosis for testicular cancer is 33 years. GCTs are categorized as seminomas and nonseminomatous GCTs (NSGCTs) based on their embryonic origins and path of differentiation. Risk factors include cryptorchidism, family history of testicular cancer, gonadal dysgenesis, infertility, cannabis use, and genetic conditions such as Klinefelter syndrome. The most common presenting symptom of testicular cancer is a painless testicular mass. History, physical examination, scrotal ultrasound, laboratory assessment of GCT-associated serum tumor markers (α-fetoprotein, β-human chorionic gonadotropin, and lactate dehydrogenase), and prompt referral to a urologist are indicated when testicular cancer is suspected. Early diagnosis and treatment, starting with a radical inguinal orchiectomy, are important to optimize outcomes. At diagnosis, GCT is stage I (localized to the testicle) in 70% to 75% of patients, stage II (metastatic only to the retroperitoneal lymph nodes) in 20%, and stage III (widely metastatic) in 10%. Treatment of GCTs is guided by histology, clinical staging, and risk classification, with 5-year survival rates of 99%, 92%, and 85% for those diagnosed at stages I, II, and III, respectively. Optimal treatment often involves a multidisciplinary team at high-volume, experienced medical centers and may include surveillance (serum tumor markers [α-fetoprotein, β-human chorionic gonadotropin, and lactate dehydrogenase] and imaging of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis), surgery (retroperitoneal lymph node dissection), chemotherapy, and/or radiation. Treatment decisions should consider long-term survivorship concerns, including body image, fertility, hypogonadism, mental health, financial cost, adherence to follow-up, and late adverse effects of therapy such as cardiovascular disease, secondary malignancies, and potential psychosocial effects such as anxiety, depression, and social isolation.

Conclusions and Relevance

Testicular cancer is the most common solid malignancy in young men in the US, and 90% to 95% are GCTs. Patients with testicular GCT have a 5-year survival rate of 99%, 92%, and 85% for stages I, II, and III, respectively. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are important to optimize outcomes, and treatment decisions should balance oncologic control with survivorship concerns to minimize long-term adverse effects of treatment.

Salvage Treatment for Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumours: High-Dose Chemotherapy and Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation Outcomes-A Single-Centre Experience

Objective: Extragonadal germ cell tumours have a more unfavourable prognosis than gonadal germ cell tumours. We aimed to evaluate the survival analysis, response rates, and factors affecting responses to high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) in patients with relapsed/refractory extragonadal germ cell tumours. Methods: This study included patients diagnosed with extragonadal germ cell tumours who underwent HDCT + ASCT between November 2016 and January 2023 at Gülhane Training and Research Hospital. Clinical characteristics and follow-up data from patient records and the hospital's electronic system were retrospectively analysed. Patients under 18 years of age and those without medical records were excluded. Patient characteristics, post-HDCT progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS) data, and factors affecting survival were examined. The relationship between clinical factors and OS/PFS was analysed. Results: Twenty-five patients were included in this study. Complete response (CR) was observed in seven patients (28%), partial response (PR) was observed in nine patients (36%), stable disease (SD) was observed in one patient, and progressive disease (PD) was observed in eight patients (32%) after HDCT + ASCT. The median follow-up period was 25.4 months. The median PFS and OS after HDCT + ASCT were calculated as 6.1 months and 12.2 months, respectively. Conclusions: Salvage HDCT + ASCT is an option in the treatment of extragonadal germ cell tumours, offering the potential for prolonged survival and curing.

Sustained Response to Anti-PD-1 Therapy in Combination with Nab-Paclitaxel in Metastatic Testicular Germ Cell Tumor Harboring the KRAS-G12V Mutation: A Case Report

INTRODUCTION

Cisplatin-based standardized therapy has been established for metastatic testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs). However, the patient prognosis is considerably less favorable if the disease recurs following failure of first-line therapies. There is a need for novel treatment options for patients with recurrent or metastatic TGCTs, notably for those that are not sensitive to first-line chemotherapy. With the development of next-generation sequencing technologies, an increasing number of gene mutations has been identified in TGCTs. Previously published research studies have established a link between KRAS mutations and chemotherapy resistance, and have demonstrated that KRAS mutations are associated with inflammatory tumor microenvironment and tumor immunogenicity, leading to an improved response to inhibition of programmed death (PD-1) protein expression. Previous studies have reported that the tumor immune microenvironment of TGCT influences therapeutic efficacy.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 65-year-old metastatic patient with TGCT and a KRAS-12 valine-for-glycine gene mutation was described. This patient initially underwent inguinal orchiectomy and received two prior chemotherapeutic regimens. Following the rapid progression of the disease, the patient was treated with anti-PD-1 therapy and nab-paclitaxel chemotherapy, and his condition was successfully controlled by this combination treatment.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first successful case of KRAS-mutation patient with TGCT who achieved partially and sustained disease remission by combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with chemotherapy. This case provides an excellent example for personalized treatment of metastatic TGCTs.

Testicular cancer in 2023: Current status and recent progress

Testicular germ cell tumor (GCT) is the most common solid tumor in adolescent and young adult men. Progress in the management of GCT has been made in the last 50 years, with a substantial improvement in cure rates for advanced disease, from 25% in the 1970s to nearly 80%. However, relapsed or platinum-refractory disease occurs in a proportion, 20% of whom will die from disease progression. This article reviews the current evidence-based treatments for extracranial GCT, the acute and chronic toxic effects that may result, and highlights contemporary advances and progress in the field.

Therapeutic efficacy of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell transplantation in 44 relapsed or refractory germ-cell tumor patients: A retrospective cohort study

Despite having a higher mortality risk than conventional chemotherapeutics, high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) has the potential to be curative in relapsed/refractory germ-cell tumors. Therefore, selecting the best patient group for this treatment is critical. This study aimed to determine the factors that affect survival in our relapsed/refractory GCT cohort who received HDCT and autologous stem-cell transplantation. Between September 2010 and 2020, we included in the study 44 relapsed/refractory male patients with GCT treated with HDCT plus autologous stem-cell transplantation. The patients' demographic features, clinical characteristics, and treatment outcomes were evaluated. Statistical analyses were performed to identify risk factors associated with survival. The median age of all cohorts was 28 years. Thirty-six patients had nonseminomatous tumors, and 8 patients had seminomatous tumors. The most common primary tumor sites were the gonads (75%), followed by the mediastinum (15.9%) and the retroperitoneum (9.1%). After HDCT, 11 patients had a complete response, 12 patients had a partial response, and 17 patients had a progressive disease, respectively. About 23 patients (52.3%) experienced at least 1 treatment-related grade 3 to 4 nonhematological toxicity. About 4 patients (10%) died due to HDCT-related toxicity. The total group's median progression-free survival (PFS) was 7 months, and the median overall survival (OS) was 14.9 months. Primary tumor site (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.84; P = .028), type of HDCT regimen (HR: 0.35; P = .010), and best response to HDCT (HR: 11.0; P < .0001) were independent prognostic risk factors for PFS. The only independent prognostic risk factor associated with OS was the best response to HDCT (HR: 6.62; P = .001). The results of the study promise the best response to HDCT as a primary measure for predicting survival in relapsed/refractory GCT. In contrast, primary mediastinal GCT is not a good candidate for HDCT. Furthermore, a carboplatin-etoposide regimen in combination with cyclophosphamide and paclitaxel may improve PFS.

Identification of novel potential genes in testicular germ cell tumors: A transcriptome analysis

OBJECTIVE

Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), containing pure seminoma and non-seminoma, occupy the most majority of testicular cancers in adolescents and young men, which has increased dramatically in recent decades. Therefore, it is important to find crucial genes for improving diagnosis and prognosis in TGCTs. However, the diagnostic and prognostic markers of TGCTs are limited.

METHODS

In this study, our main objective is to explore novel potential genes that can be used as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in TGCTs. Our study detected 732 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using three microarray expression profiling datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Multiple analysis was performed to identify the roles of DEGs, including pathway and functional enrichment analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, module analysis, and survival analysis.

RESULT

In total, 322 upregulated genes and 406 downregulated genes were identified as DEGs The functional and pathway enrichment analysis shows that DEGs were highly enriched in multiple biological attributes such as T cell activation, reproduction in multicellular organism, sperm flagellum, antigen processing and presentation Then, seven potential crucial genes were identified via PPI network analysis, module analysis, and survival analysis. Furthermore, 7 potential crucial genes had shown to play a key role in regulating immune cell infiltration level in patients with TGCTs.

CONCLUSION

We identified seven potential crucial genes (LAPTM5, NCF2, PECAM1, CD14, COL4A2, ANPEP and RGS1), which may be molecular markers in improving the way of diagnosis and prognosis in TGCTs.

High-dose chemotherapy for relapsed testicular germ cell tumours

Relapsed testicular germ cell tumours (GCTs) might be cured with salvage chemotherapy. Accepted salvage treatment is conventional-dose chemotherapy (CDCT) or high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT). HDCT with peripheral blood stem cell transplant might produce a higher number of durable responses than CDCT. We discuss studies reporting on outcomes of salvage HDCT in relapsed GCTs. The most reproducible results were achieved with HDCT with two cycles of etoposide and carboplatin or three cycles of the paclitaxel, ifosfamide, carboplatin and etoposide regime. Using these two regimens, sustained cure rates of 50-66% were reported in phase I, phase II and retrospective studies published in the past two decades. Cure rates in patients with cisplatin-resistant disease are between 30% and 45%. Two phase III randomized studies were conducted with certain limitations and were unsuccessful in showing a survival benefit of HDCT. Thus, salvage treatment remains a controversial topic. Salvage HDCT with peripheral blood stem cell transplant and CDCT are two recommended treatment options for relapsed GCTs. Consistently reported cure rates from phase I, phase II and large retrospective studies support the use of HDCT in the hands of an experienced team of oncologists.

Platinum-Based Chemotherapy 'Rechallenge' in Advanced Non-ovarian Solid Malignancies

Platinum-based chemotherapy forms the backbone of treatment for many solid cancers. However, resistance inevitably develops in those with advanced disease. Platinum rechallenge is a well-established concept in the management of ovarian cancer, small cell lung cancer and germ cell tumours. In other solid malignancies there is a lack of quality evidence to support platinum rechallenge, yet it is a widely adopted strategy. Often, patients are within the last year of life, making questions of efficacy, treatment-related toxicity and quality of life critical factors for treatment recommendations. In this overview we appraise the available evidence for platinum rechallenge and strategies being developed to attempt resensitisation of tumours to platinum-based chemotherapy.

Peri-treatment adverse events of primary mediastinal non-seminomatous germ cell tumors

Primary mediastinal non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (PMNSGCT) are rare but life-threatening thoracic cancers. We report our experience from eight patients with peri-treatment adverse events. By analyzing changes in tumor extent, serum tumor markers, and pathologies between diagnosis and transfer, those events could be attributed to postbiopsy respiratory insufficiency, growing teratoma syndrome, secondary histiocytic malignancy, and PMNSGCT progression. Subjecting patients to respiratory therapy, conventional or high-dose chemotherapy, and surgery controlled the disease, with five of the eight patients surviving disease free. These outcomes indicate that integrated appropriate and timely approaches are important in tackling peri-treatment adverse events.

Current Status of Stem Cell Transplant in Treatment of Testicular Germ Cell Tumors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We aim to discuss the history of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell transplant in testicular germ cell tumors, prognostic factors to consider prior to transplant, and issues both during and after transplant while also touching on the use of conventional-dose vs. high-dose chemotherapy for initial salvage treatment in patients with relapsed disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

The advancements in the treatment of testicular cancer have led to the majority of patients even with distant metastases being cured of their malignancy. Despite this, around 20% of patients with metastatic disease will relapse after first-line therapy, and the majority of these patients will go on to need further salvage chemotherapy, either with conventional-dose chemotherapy or high-dose chemotherapy. High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell transplant is an effective salvage therapy and will still remarkably result in cures for the majority of patients with relapsed disease. While patients receiving it as even third-line salvage therapy may achieve cures, earlier administration likely results in greater efficacy.

High-dose Chemotherapy in Germ Cell Cancer Patients With Brain Metastases: Experience of an Expert Center

OBJECTIVES

Germ cell tumor (GCT) patients with brain metastases (BM) have a poor prognosis and high risk of treatment failure. Optimal therapies for these patients remain controversial. The aim of this study was to report the outcomes of all GCT patients with BM treated with high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) in our French expert center for GCT.

METHODS

We carried out a retrospective study of 35 GCT patients with BM who were treated from 2003 to 2019 with HDCT, followed by infusions of autologous peripheral blood hematopoietic stem cells.

RESULTS

The overall survival at 2 years was 36.9% (95% confidence interval, 19.7-54). The median overall survival was 12 months and the median progression-free survival was 8 months. No variables were associated with better survival in the univariable analysis. Among the 35 patients included in our study, 31 completed HDCT and 4 stopped treatments after mobilization. Eleven patients (11) showed favorable responses (complete, partial, or stable disease) to HDCT and 20 patients died of disease progression (17) or toxicities (3). Among the 11 patients with favorable responses to HDCT, 8 (72.7%) had metachronous BM, mostly isolated. The majority of these patients did not receive local treatment at diagnosis or at relapse.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our study reveals that GCT patients can experience long-term survival even in the presence of BM. Metachronous BM can also be cured with HDCT even in the absence of local treatment. Biological and radiologic responses to mobilization could be a predictor of favorable responses to HDCT.

Serum tumour markers in germ cell tumours: From diagnosis to cure

Germ cell tumors (GCTs) represent the best and the only example of solid tumors curable in the large majority of patients. GCTs are one of the few malignancies for which specific biochemical markers have been identified: human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and alfa-fetoprotein (AFP). Due to their specificity and sensitivity they constitute formidable tools in the diagnosis and monitoring of treatment for GCTs. As a tumor mass marker, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is also considered. Tumor markers are expressed in 15-20% of seminoma and 60-80% of non-seminoma. With the aim to increase sensitivity and specificity, recent studies have proposed miRNAs as serum biomarkers. This review will focus on role of serum tumor markers in diagnosis, staging, prognosis, monitoring of response, and finally follow-up of GCTs.

Survival Outcomes After High-dose Chemotherapy and Stem Cell Transplantation in the Salvage Setting for Relapsed or Refractory Germ Cell Cancers

BACKGROUND/AIM

High-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and stem cell transplantation (SCT) have been established as the standard of care in patients with relapsed germ cell tumours (GCTs). We evaluated the safety, efficacy and tolerability of HDCT/ SCT in patients with relapsed GCTs.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty-eight patients with relapsed GCTs, treated with HDCT, were included in this study. The conditioning regime was carboplatin, etoposide, cyclophosphamide and paclitaxel. Clinical, radiological imaging and tumour markers determined treatment outcomes.

RESULTS

Median age was 35 years (range=21-57 years) with 26 males and 2 females. Median time to first relapse was 6 months. Median time to progression after 2^nd line chemotherapy was 17.3 months. Fourteen patients hadMedian survival was 62 months and 16 patients (57%) are in clinical follow-up with surveillance.

CONCLUSION

In relapsed GCT patients, median survival may exceed 5 years post-HDCT and SCT.

[Intensification by high dose chemotherapy for germ-cell tumors, still an ongoing subject?]

More than 80 % of patient with metastatic germ cell tumor are cured with first line chemotherapy. Twenty to 30 % of patients will experience relapse or refractory disease with a very poor long-term prognosis. Most of them had metastatic germ cell tumors with a poor prognosis according to the international germ cell classification collaborative group (IGCCCG). The role of treatment intensification by high dose chemotherapy (HDCT) followed by stem cell rescue has not been demonstrated yet in the first line setting compared to standard chemotherapy. The role of HDCT in first or second salvage is also not yet demonstrated, many studies have been published in this situation with a lot of different regimen. Outside clinical trial, HDCT remains an option in salvage therapy, depending on many factors including prognostics factors, previous therapy, general condition and reference center consideration to select eligible patient who could benefit the most of this approach. Results from the international randomized trial TIGER will provide evidence-based information for HDCT strategy.

Phase II study of avelumab in multiple relapsed/refractory germ cell cancer

Background Germ cell tumors (GCTs) are highly curable diseases; however, not all patients can be cured. Patients in their second relapse have especially poor prognoses. PD-L1 expression is significantly higher in GCTs than in normal testicular tissue, and high PD-L1 expression is associated with a poor prognosis. This study aimed to determine the efficacy and safety of avelumab, a PD-L1 inhibitor, in patients with GCTs. Methods In this phase 2 study, patients with multiple relapsed and/or refractory GCTs were treated with avelumab at a dose of 10 mg/kg administered biweekly until progression or unacceptable toxicity. The primary endpoint was 12-week progression-free survival (PFS). Fifteen evaluable patients had to be enrolled in the first cohort, and if <8 of 15 patients had 12-week PFS, the study was to be terminated. Here, we report the results of the first stage of the trial. Results From November 2017 to January 2018, 8 patients with a median age of 29 years (range, 22 to 52 months) were enrolled. Patients were pretreated with a median of 5 (range, 1 to 6) previous lines of platinum-based therapies; 5 tumors (62.5%) were absolutely refractory to cisplatin, and 5 patients (62.5%) had visceral nonpulmonary metastases. At a median follow-up period of 2.6 months (range, 0.3 to 14.4), all the patients experienced disease progression, and 7 patients (87.5%) died. The twelve-week PFS was 0%, median PFS was 0.9 months (95% CI 0.5-1.9), and median OS was 2.7 months (95% CI 1.0-3.3). Avelumab was well tolerated, and no severe adverse events were observed. Conclusions This study failed to achieve its primary endpoint. Our data suggest a lack of avelumab efficacy in unselected multiple relapsed/refractory GCTs.

Current pharmacotherapy for testicular germ cell cancer

INTRODUCTION

With the implementation of platinum-based chemotherapy, germ cell tumors (GCTs) became a model for a curable solid tumor, with survival rates of 95% in all patients with >80% survival in metastatic stages.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors review the current standards of adjuvant chemotherapy for stage I GCTs as well as first-line and salvage treatments for metastatic disease. Novel approaches for refractory disease are also reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

Active surveillance should be considered for all stage I patients and is the preferred approach for stage I seminoma. In stage I non-seminomas with vascular invasion, one cycle of bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin (BEP) substantially reduces the relapse risk. For most advanced GCTs, BEP remains the first-line standard of care. For poor prognosis disease treatment, stratification according to tumor marker decline is recommended. The role of primary high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) for selected very high-risk patients remains to be prospectively evaluated. Salvage HDCT at relapse seems superior to conventional chemotherapy, retrospectively. The treatment of multiply relapsed disease remains challenging. The gemcitabine/oxaliplatin/paclitaxel (GOP) protocol is considered the standard for refractory disease. However, overall, outcomes are poor and new treatment approaches are urgently needed with targeted therapies so far failing to yield relevant clinical activity.

Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Male Germ Cell Tumors: Improved Outcomes Over 3 Decades

The curative potential of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (autoHCT) for male germ cell tumors (GCTs) is well established. The optimal timing and number (single transplant [ST] versus tandem transplants [TT] versus triple transplants) of autoHCT are controversial, with wide practice variations. We examined survival trends among 2395 recipients of autoHCT for male GCTs between 1990 and 2015 reported to the Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research. Trends and outcomes were analyzed by year of transplantation for intervals 1990 to 1994 (N = 288), 1995 to 1999 (N = 351), 2000 to 2004 (N = 376), 2005 to 2009 (N = 509), and 2010 to 2015 (N = 871). Multivariate analysis was restricted to the subset from 2000 to 2015 with research-level data (n = 267). The median duration of follow-up was 51 months. The median age at autoHCT was 31 years; 633 patients (26%) had primary extragonadal GCT, and 1167 (49%) underwent TT. The 3-year progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS) improved from 24% (95% confidence interval [CI], 18% to 31%) and 35% (95% CI, 29% to 40%), respectively, in 1990 to 1994 to 47% (95% CI, 43% to 50%) and 54% (95% CI, 50% to 57%), respectively, in 2010 to 2015 (P < .0001). TT recipients were more likely than ST recipients to undergo autoHCT as first salvage treatment. The proportion of TTs increased from 38% of all autoHCTs in 2000 to 2004 to 77% in 2010 to 2015. Nonseminoma histology, residual disease at autoHCT, >1 line of pretransplantation chemotherapy, and ST versus TT were associated with inferior PFS and OS. Post-transplantation survival has improved significantly over time for relapsed/refractory male GCT and is associated with the increased use of TTs (compared with STs) and performance of autoHCT earlier in the disease course.

Genitourinary Pathology Reporting Parameters Most Relevant to the Medical Oncologist

Pathologic variables play an important role in prognostication in urologic malignancies. Histologic subtype, histologic grade, and anatomic extent of disease (pathologic tumor and nodal staging) influence treatment decisions in both the adjuvant and metastatic settings. This article discusses treatment paradigms for the most common urologic malignancies, followed by the evidence base to support the relationship between pathologic assessment and decision making by the medical oncologist.

Therapeutic approaches for refractory germ cell cancer

INTRODUCTION

Most germ cell cancer patients with metastatic disease are cured by cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy. 30% of metastatic patients will develop relapse or progress despite adequate first-line treatment and will require salvage therapy, with about 10% of metastasized patients ultimately developing platinum-resistant and fatal disease. Areas covered: Based on a comprehensive literature search of MEDLINE, EMBASE and conference proceedings of ESMO, ASCO and EAU meetings, this review provides an overview on current and potential future treatment options for platinum-refractory germ cell cancer patients including cytostatics and molecularly targeted therapies. Expert commentary: Treatment of platinum-refractory disease remains challenging and long-term survival is rarely achieved despite multimodal treatment approaches. Targeted treatment approaches do not yet play a role in the treatment of platinum-refractory disease due to lacking efficacy in small, unselected clinical trials. Inclusion of patients into clinical trials is strongly recommended.

Retrospective analysis of patients with relapsed or refractory testicular nonseminous germ cell tumors treated with autologous stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND AND AIM

About 20-25% of the testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT) are relapsed or refractory after first line therapy and optimal treatment for this group is poorly defined. We aimed to analyze the efficacy and safety of autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) in this patient group.Material and.

METHODS

19 patients with 28 ASCT were retrospectively analyzed. All the patients were treated with BEP (Bleomycin, etoposide, cisplatin) as first line therapy and TIP(paclitexalifosfamide, cisplatin) was given as salvage chemotherapy. Stem cell collection was performed with TIP and granulocyte stimulating factor. ASCT was performed with carboplatin(700mg/m2) and etoposite(750mg /m 2). The results were provided as median(min-max). P<0.05 was accepted as statistical significant level.

RESULTS

After ASCT, complete(CR) and partial remission (PR) rates were 47.3% and 31 .5% respectively. The median overall survival(OS) and progression free survival (PFS) were 18(0-37.4 months) and 7(0-15months) months respectively. Estimated 2-year OS was 47.4% and PFS was 35.3%. Grade 3/4 toxicities including diarrhea, mucositis, and toxic hepatitis were observed in 5 patients. Only one patient died due to complication of transplantation.

CONCLUSION

Although the number of the patients in this study is limited, ASCT seems to be a safe and effective treatment modality in relapsed refractory non-seminomatousTGCT with an acceptable OS, PFS and mortality rates.

IGG* Practice Guidelines on Germ Cell Tumor in Adult Male Patients

Germ cell tumors are rare neoplasms that affect young males. Nearly 99% of patients with localized stage I disease and nearly 80% of patients with metastatic disease can be cured. Even patients who relapse following chemotherapy can achieve a long-term survival in approximately 30–40% of cases. The main objective in early stages and in good prognosis patients has changed in recent years, and it has become of major importance to reduce treatment-related morbidity without compromising the excellent long-term survival rate. In poor prognosis patients, there is a correlation between the experience of the treating institution and the long-term clinical outcome of the patients, particularly when the most sophisticated therapies are needed. So far, of utmost importance is the information from updated practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of germ cell tumors. The Italian Germ cell cancer Group (IGG) has developed the following clinical recommendations, which identify the current standards in diagnosis and treatment of germ cell tumors in adult males.

Salvage Therapy for Patients With Germ Cell Tumor

The introduction of cisplatin combination chemotherapy, 40 years ago, transformed metastatic testicular germ cell tumors from an almost uniformly fatal disease into a model for a curable neoplasm. Before the era of platinum combination chemotherapy, the 5-year survival rate among men with metastatic testicular germ cell tumors was 5% to 10%. Currently, the 5-year survival rate is 80% for patients with metastatic disease and 95% overall. Despite the substantial advances in the treatment of germ cell tumors, 20% to 30% of patients will relapse after first-line chemotherapy and will require additional salvage therapies. Standard-dose or high-dose chemotherapy can cure ≤ 50% of these patients. Relapses after high-dose chemotherapy generally carry a poor prognosis; however, cure is still possible in a small percentage of patients by using further salvage chemotherapy or salvage surgery.

Current Management of Refractory Germ Cell Tumors and Future Directions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We review current management strategies for patients with relapsed and refractory germ cell tumors (GCTs), defined as relapsed or persistent disease following at least one line of cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Additionally, we discuss future directions in the management of these patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies involving targeted therapies have been disappointing. Nevertheless, studies of the management of refractory germ cell cancer are ongoing, with a focus on optimal utilization of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplant, as well as the role of immune checkpoint inhibitors in refractory germ cell tumors. Studies aiming to identify those patients who may benefit from more intensive treatment up front to prevent the development of refractory disease are also in progress. Testicular germ cell tumors are among the most curable of all solid tumor malignancies, with cure being possible even in the refractory, metastatic setting. Treatment of refractory disease remains a challenging clinical scenario, but potentially practice changing studies are ongoing.

Consensus Recommendations from the Spanish Germ Cell Cancer Group on the Use of High-dose Chemotherapy in Germ Cell Cancer

BACKGROUND

High-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) has been studied in several clinical scenarios in advanced germ cell cancer (GCC).

OBJECTIVE

To establish a clinical practice guideline for HDCT use in the treatment of GCC patients.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

An expert panel reviewed information available from the literature. The panel addressed relevant issues concerning and related to HDCT. The guideline was externally reviewed by two international experts.

RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS

The efficacy of HDCT has been demonstrated in selected GCC patients. The most conclusive evidence comes from retrospective analyses that need to be interpreted with caution. HDCT can cure a significant proportion of heavily treated GCC patients. When indicated, sequential HDCT with regimens containing carboplatin and etoposide, as well as peripheral stem-cell support, is recommended. There is no conclusive evidence to recommend HDCT as first-line therapy. According to a multinational retrospective pooled analysis, HDCT might be superior to conventional CT as first salvage treatment in selected patients. There is an urgent need for prospective clinical trials addressing the value of HDCT in GCC patients who experience failure on first-line cisplatin-based CT. In patients who progress on conventional-dose salvage CT, HDCT should be considered. Treatment of these patients at experienced centers is strongly recommended.

CONCLUSIONS

It has been demonstrated that HDCT cures selected GCC patients who experience disease progression on conventional rescue regimens. The panel recommends the inclusion of GCC patients in randomized clinical trials including HDCT.

PATIENT SUMMARY

This consensus establishes clinical practice guidelines for the use and study of high-dose chemotherapy in patients with germ cell cancer.

Treatment and outcomes of UK and German patients with relapsed intracranial germ cell tumors following uniform first-line therapy

We aimed to retrospectively assess treatments/outcomes, including the value of high-dose-chemotherapy and autologous-stem-cell-rescue (HDC + AuSCR) and re-irradiation, in a large, European patient-cohort with relapsed intracranial germ-cell-tumors (GCTs) receiving uniform first-line therapy, including radiotherapy as standard-of-care. Fifty-eight UK/German patients (48 male/10 female) with relapsed intracranial-GCTs [13 germinoma/45 non-germinomatous GCT (NGGCT)] treated 1996-2010 as per the SIOP-CNS-GCT-96 protocol were evaluated. For germinoma, six patients relapsed with germinoma and five with NGGCT (one palliative, one teratoma patient excluded). Five-year overall-survival (OS) for the whole-group (n = 11) was 55%. Four of six germinoma relapses and two of five relapsing with NGGCT were salvaged; patients were salvaged with either standard-dose-chemotherapy (SDC) and re-irradiation or HDC + AuSCR with/without re-irradiation. Of 45 relapsed NGGCT patients, 13 were excluded (three non-protocol adherence, five teratoma, five palliation). Five-year OS for the remaining 32 relapsed malignant NGGCT patients treated with curative intent was 9% (95%CI: 2-26%). By treatment received, 5-year OS for the 10 patients receiving SDC and 22 patients treated with intention for HDC + AuSCR was 0% (0-0%) and 14% (3-36%), respectively. The three relapsed NGGCT survivors had raised HCG markers alone; two received additional irradiation. Patients with relapsed germinoma had better 5-year OS than those with relapsed NGGCT (55 vs. 9%; p = 0.007). Patients with relapsed germinoma were salvaged both with SDC and re-irradiation or HDC + AuSCR with/without re-irradiation; both represent valid treatment options. Outcomes for malignant relapse following initial diagnosis of NGGCT were exceptionally poor; the few survivors received thiotepa-based HDC + AuSCR, which is a treatment option at first malignant relapse for such patients, with further surgery/irradiation where feasible.

Role of High-Dose Chemotherapy With Autologous Stem-Cell Rescue in Men With Previously Treated Germ Cell Tumors

The Oncology Grand Rounds series is designed to place original reports published in the Journal into clinical context. A case presentation is followed by a description of diagnostic and management challenges, a review of the relevant literature, and a summary of the authors' suggested management approaches. The goal of this series is to help readers better understand how to apply the results of key studies, including those published in Journal of Clinical Oncology, to patients seen in their own clinical practice. A 39-year-old, previously healthy man presented with a left testicular mass, confirmed on ultrasound. He underwent left inguinal orchiectomy, which disclosed testicular carcinoma composed of 90% choriocarcinoma, 9% seminoma, and 1% teratoma. Imaging revealed numerous metastases in the lungs, liver, and brain. Prechemotherapy levels of serum tumor markers were alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) 2.0 ng/mL, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 151,111 IU/L, and lactate dehydrogenase 588 U/L. He received four courses of etoposide, ifosfamide, and cisplatin chemotherapy, given without bleomycin because of the anticipated need for postchemotherapy thoracic surgery. He had an incomplete response to induction chemotherapy. The serum hCG level was 8.1 IU/L, and there were residual lesions in the liver and lungs whereas the brain metastases had nearly resolved. His Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status was zero. He had no symptoms of ototoxicity or peripheral neurotoxicity. Repeat serum hCG levels after chemotherapy were 12.3 IU/L at 2 weeks and 325 IU/L at 4 weeks. He was referred to discuss optimal ongoing treatment.

High-Dose Chemotherapy and Autologous Peripheral-Blood Stem-Cell Transplantation for Relapsed Metastatic Germ Cell Tumors: The Indiana University Experience

Purpose Patients with relapsed metastatic germ cell tumor (GCT) can be cured with second-line and even third-line regimens. We report survival outcomes of patients treated with high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and peripheral-blood stem-cell transplantation (PBSCT) at Indiana University between 2004 and 2014. Patients and Methods We conducted a retrospective analysis of 364 consecutive patients with GCT who progressed after cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy and were subsequently treated with HDCT and PBSCT. Three hundred forty-one patients received two consecutive courses of HDCT consisting of 700 mg/m² carboplatin and 750 mg/m² etoposide, each for 3 consecutive days, and each followed by PBSCT. Twenty-three patients received only a single course of HDCT because of progressive disease or toxicity. Cox proportional hazards models were used to test predictors of disease progression. Results The median age was 32 years (range, 17 to 70 years). With a median follow-up of 3.3 years, the 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) was 60% (95% CI, 55% to 65%) and the 2-year overall survival was 66% (95% CI, 60% to 70%). Three hundred three patients received HDCT as second-line therapy with a 2-year PFS of 63% (95% CI, 57% to 68%), and 61 patients received HDCT as third-line or later therapy with a 2-year PFS of 49% (95% CI, 36% to 61%). In a multivariable analysis, factors associated with disease progression included use of HDCT as third-line or later therapy, platinum-refractory disease, mediastinal primary tumor site, nonseminoma histology, intermediate- or poor-risk disease at the time of GCT diagnosis, and human chorionic gonadotropin ≥ 1,000 mIU/mL at initiation of HDCT. There were nine treatment-related deaths. Secondary leukemia developed in five patients. Conclusion This large single-institution study demonstrates that patients with relapsed metastatic GCT are curable by HDCT plus PBSCT even when used in third-line or later therapy.

[High-dose chemotherapy as a strategy to overcome drug resistance in solid tumors]

The concept of high-doses chemotherapy was developed in the 1980s based on in vitro scientific observations. Exposure of tumor cells to increasing concentrations of alkylating agents resulted in increased cell death in a strong dose-response manner. Moreover, the acquired resistance of tumor cells could be overcome by dose intensification. In clinic, dose intensification of alkylating agents resulted in increased therapeutic responses, however associated with significant hematological toxicity. Following the development of autologous stem cells transplantation harvesting from peripheral blood, the high-doses of chemotherapy, initially associated with marked toxic effects, could be more easily tolerated. As a result, the approach was evaluated in different types of solid tumors, including breast, ovarian and germ cell tumors, small cell lung carcinoma, soft tissue sarcomas and Ewing sarcoma. To date, high-doses chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem cells support is only used as a salvage therapy to treat poor prognosis germ cell tumors patients with chemo-sensitive disease. Regarding breast and ovarian cancer, high-doses chemotherapy should be considered only in the context of clinical trials. However, intensive therapy as an approach to overcome resistance to standard treatments is still relevant. Numerous efforts are still ongoing to identify novel therapeutic combinations and active treatments to improve patients' responses.

Platinum-refractory germ cell tumors: an update on current treatment options and developments

PURPOSE

In general, 50 % up to 80 % of metastasized germ cell tumor patients can be cured by platinum-based chemotherapy. However, 3-5 % of patients will still die of platinum-refractory disease and new systemic treatment options are needed to improve treatment success in this difficult setting. This review aims to give an overview on treatment options and current developments in the field of platinum-refractory male germ cell tumors.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted searching PubMed, Medline, Cochrane and Embase to identify clinical trials regarding the treatment of platinum-refractory disease. ASCO, EAU and ESMO conference proceedings were searched to identify unpublished results of relevant trials. Comprehensive review papers were hand searched for additional references. Clinicaltrials.gov was checked for ongoing clinical trials in the field of platinum-refractory germ cell tumors.

RESULTS

Outcome of platinum-refractory disease remains poor. Single-agents with reasonable activity are gemcitabine, oxaliplatin and paclitaxel, but complete remissions resulting in long-term survival could not be achieved. The triple-combination of gemcitabine, oxaliplatin and paclitaxel followed by resection of residual masses provides the best outcomes with objective responses in 51 % of patients and long-term survival in approximately 10-15 %. To date, no molecularly targeted agent has shown reasonable activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment options for platinum-refractory disease are limited, but a small subset of patients may achieve long-term disease-free survival by multimodal treatment. The potential of novel targeted agents, i.e. by immune-checkpoint-inhibition remains to be defined.

Investigational targeted therapies for the treatment of testicular germ cell tumors

INTRODUCTION

Germ cell tumors (GCTs) are the most common malignancy among men aged between 15 to 45. Despite high cure rates of >90% over all GCTs, 3 to 5% of patients will still die of platinum-refractory disease. New systemic treatment options are needed to improve treatment success in this challenging setting.

AREAS COVERED

To review targeted treatment options and preclinical developments in platinum-refractory GCTs, a comprehensive literature search of PubMed, Medline and scientific meeting abstracts on published clinical trials and reports on molecularly targeted approaches was conducted. Outcomes of platinum-refractory disease and of patients failing high-dose chemotherapy remain poor. Currently, no molecularly targeted treatment has shown clinically meaningful activity in unselected patient populations in clinical trials, but individual patients may achieve short-lived objective responses by treatment with sunitinib, brentuximab vedotin or imatinib. Targeted trials based on molecular selection of patients have not yet been performed.

EXPERT OPINION

The limited activity of targeted agents in refractory GCT is disappointing. Assessment of druggable biomarkers and marker-stratified treatment may help individual patients, but is largely lacking. The low incidence and high curability of GCTs make the design of larger clinical trials difficult. The potential of novel agents, i.e. immune-checkpoint inhibitors, remains to be elucidated.

Phase II study of everolimus in refractory testicular germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) represent a highly curable disease; however, a small proportion of patients develop disease recurrence. Loss of the tumor-suppressor gene phosphatase and tensin homolog marks the transition from intratubular germ cell neoplasia to invasive GCT and is correlated with disease progression. Inactivation of phosphatase and tensin homolog is associated with deregulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and increased mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. This study aimed to determine the efficacy and toxicity of a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor, everolimus, in patients with refractory TGCTs.

METHODS

From December 2011 to February 2015, 15 patients with refractory GCTs were enrolled in the phase II study. All patients were pretreated with at least 2 cisplatin-based therapies; 4 tumors (26.7%) were absolutely refractory to cisplatin and 9 patients (60.0%) had visceral nonpulmonary metastases. Everolimus was administered at a dose of 10mg daily until progression or unacceptable toxicity. The primary end point was the objective response rate, according to Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors.

RESULTS

No objective response was observed, but 6 patients (40.0%) achieved 12-week progression-free survival. During a median follow-up period of 3.6 months (range: 1-35.1mo), all patients experienced disease progression and 11 patients (80.0%) died. Median progression-free survival was 1.7 months (95% CI: 1.1-4.0mo) and median overall survival was 3.6 months (95% CI: 2.0-11.0mo).

CONCLUSIONS

This study failed to achieve its primary end point and our data suggest limited efficacy of everolimus against unselected heavily pretreated refractory TGCTs.

CONDENSED ABSTRACT

Everolimus showed limited efficacy in unselected heavily pretreated refractory TGCTs. Prolonged disease stabilization could be achieved in selected patients.

High-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation in relapsed or refractory germ cell tumours: outcomes and prognostic variables in a case series of 17 patients

BACKGROUND

Optimal therapy for men relapsing after initial chemotherapy for germ cell tumours (GCT) is poorly defined. Both conventional dose salvage regimens and high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation (HDCT-ASCT) have been utilised.

AIMS

To examine patients who received HDCT-ASCT for relapsed GCT within a single Australian centre.

METHODS

Records between 2000 and 2012 were analysed for baseline characteristics, treatment-related toxicity and survival. Prognosis at the time of HDCT-ASCT was classified according to the International Prognostic Factors Study Group (IPFSG).

RESULTS

Seventeen patients received HDCT-ASCT, median age 34 (21-46), with 41% having primary refractory disease and 53% with high/very high risk disease by IPFSG. The most common regimen utilised was paclitaxel/ifosfamide followed by high-dose carboplatin/etoposide (TI-CE; n = 12). The median duration of grade 4 (G4) neutropenia was 11 days (range 9-17) with febrile neutropenia in 90% resulting in four intensive care unit admissions (8%). Median duration of G4 thrombocytopenia was 10 days (range 8-19) requiring a median of two pooled platelets bags (range 0-33) per episode. Transplant-related mortality occurred in one patient (veno-occlusive disease). Twenty-seven per cent of HDCT-ASCT cycles were associated with grade 3 mucositis (median total parenteral nutrition days = 5 (0-23)). Two-year progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) rates were 59% and 71%. Patients who received HDCT-ASCT as second or subsequent relapse fared worse than those treated with HDCT-ASCT at first relapse (hazard ratio 0.23 (95% confidence interval: 0.04, 1.37; P-value 0.09). Three-year OS for those who received TI-CE at first relapse was 90%.

CONCLUSIONS

HDCT-ASCT for relapsed GCT is effective with acceptable toxicity. There was encouraging PFS/OS, particularly in a poor-prognosis cohort.

Bevacizumab/high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell transplant for poor-risk relapsed or refractory germ-cell tumors

BACKGROUND

High-dose chemotherapy (HDC) using sequential cycles of carboplatin/etoposide is curative for relapsed germ-cell tumors (GCT). However, outcomes of high-risk patients in advanced relapse remain poor. We previously developed a new HDC regimen combining infusional gemcitabine with docetaxel/melphalan/carboplatin (GemDMC), with preliminary high activity in refractory GCT. Given the high vascular endothelial growth factor expression in metastatic GCT and the synergy between bevacizumab and chemotherapy, we studied concurrent bevacizumab and sequential HDC using GemDMC and ifosfamide/carboplatin/etoposide (ICE) in patients with poor-risk relapsed or refractory disease.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eligibility criteria included intermediate/high-risk relapse (Beyer Model), serum creatinine ≤ 1.8 mg/dl and adequate pulmonary/cardiac/hepatic function. Patients received sequential HDC cycles with bevacizumab preceding GemDMC (cycle 1) and ICE (cycle 2). The trial was powered to distinguish a target 50% 2-year relapse-free survival (RFS) from an expected 25% 2-year RFS in this population.

RESULTS

We enrolled 43 male patients, median age 30 (20-49) years, with absolute refractory (N = 20), refractory (N = 17) or cisplatin-sensitive (N = 6) disease, after a median 3 (1-5) prior relapses. Disease status right before HDC was unresponsive (N = 24, progressive disease 22, stable disease 2), partial response with positive markers (PRm(+)) (N = 8), PRm(-) (N = 7) or complete response (N = 4). Main toxicities were mucositis and renal. Four patients (three with baseline marginal renal function) died from HDC-related complications. Tumor markers normalized in 85% patients. Resection of residual lesions (N = 13) showed necrosis (N = 4), mature teratoma (N = 2), necrosis/teratoma (N = 3) and viable tumor (N = 4). At median follow-up of 46 (9-84) months, the RFS and overall survival rates are 55.8% and 58.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Sequential bevacizumab/GemDMC-bevacizumab/ICE shows encouraging outcomes in heavily pretreated and refractory GCT, exceeding the results expected in this difficult to treat population.

CLINICALTRIALSGOV

NCT00936936.

Salvage high-dose chemotherapy for germ cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Salvage high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) along with autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT) plays an important role in the management of patients with germ cell tumors (GCT) and progression after first-line cisplatin-based chemotherapy. In this review, the authors will discuss the history of HDCT as salvage management of patients with GCT, improvement in efficacy and safety over the past 25 years, prognostic factors for outcome, and the conflicting data on the optimal initial salvage approach.

METHODS

The authors performed a PubMed search of HDCT and GCT to identify articles relevant to this review. After discussion, the articles felt to have contributed most notably to the field were selected for inclusion and summarized.

RESULTS

Depending on patient selection and timing of HDCT, durable remission rates with salvage HDCT range between 30% and 63%. The combination of carboplatin and etoposide is the standard regimen for the high-dose cycles with more variability in the regimens used for stem cell mobilization. Adding a third agent, particularly an oxazophosphorine (cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide), may add toxicity without increasing efficacy. In addition, sequential (2 or 3 cycle) HDCT regimens appear more effective and safer than single-cycle HDCT regimens. The optimal initial salvage approach (HDCT or conventional-dose chemotherapy) remains an unanswered question and highly controversial.

CONCLUSIONS

Salvage HDCT with ASCT can cure a significant proportion of patients with GCT and progression after one or more lines of cisplatin-based chemotherapy and thus plays an important role in the contemporary management of high-risk patients.

Intensive chemotherapy as salvage treatment for solid tumors: focus on germ cell cancer

Germ cell tumors present contrasting biological and molecular features compared to many solid tumors, which may partially explain their unusual sensitivity to chemotherapy. Reduced DNA repair capacity and enhanced induction of apoptosis appear to be key factors in the sensitivity of germ cell tumors to cisplatin. Despite substantial cure rates, some patients relapse and subsequently die of their disease. Intensive doses of chemotherapy are used to counter mechanisms of drug resistance. So far, high-dose chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem cell support for solid tumors is used only in the setting of testicular germ cell tumors. In that indication, high-dose chemotherapy is given as the first or late salvage treatment for patients with either relapsed or progressive tumors after initial conventional salvage chemotherapy. High-dose chemotherapy is usually given as two or three sequential cycles using carboplatin and etoposide with or without ifosfamide. The administration of intensive therapy carries significant side effects and can only be efficiently and safely conducted in specialized referral centers to assure optimum patient care outcomes. In breast and ovarian cancer, most studies have demonstrated improvement in progression-free survival (PFS), but overall survival remained unchanged. Therefore, most of these approaches have been dropped. In germ cell tumors, clinical trials are currently investigating novel therapeutic combinations and active treatments. In particular, the integration of targeted therapies constitutes an important area of research for patients with a poor prognosis.

Current chemotherapeutic approaches for recurrent or refractory germ cell tumors

INTRODUCTION

Up to 25% of patients with metastatic testicular germ cell tumour (GCT) are not cured by first line therapy and require treatment for refractory or relapsed disease.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted through PubMed, Medline, Cochrane and EMBASE from January 1950 to April 2014 for articles relating to trials of chemotherapy for patients with relapsed or refractory germ cell tumours. Relevant review papers and conference proceedings were hand searched for additional references.

RESULTS

A range of conventional dose chemotherapy (CDCT) regimens can provide durable remissions in 20-30% of patients at first or subsequent salvage.

CONCLUSIONS

This article reviews the evidence underlying commonly used salvage CDCT based on ifosfamide and cisplatin such as TIP, VIP and VeIP; other active combinations; and single agent salvage regimens. The treatment of growing teratoma syndrome and malignant transformation of teratoma will also be discussed. Companion articles will explore the role of high dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and novel targeted agents.