Use of Cinacalcet and 99mTc-sestamibi Imaging During Pregnancy

Pregnancy with primary hyperparathyroidism

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in pregnancy is rare. The physiological changes that occur in pregnancy often tend to mask the symptoms of PHPT, thereby making diagnosis challenging. If left undiagnosed, PHPT can lead to significant feto-maternal morbidity, which, primarily depends on maternal serum calcium levels. Maternal serum calcium > 11.4 mg/dl increases the risk of incident maternal and fetal complications. The diagnosis of PHPT in pregnancy is based on the documentation of parathyroid hormone-dependent hypercalcemia. Ultrasonography can be safely used to localize the culprit parathyroid lesions; other imaging modalities entailing the risk of exposure to ionizing radiation should preferably be avoided. Treatment involves parathyroid surgery (preferably performed in the second trimester) and/or medical management (hydration, use of calcium-lowering drugs like calcitonin and/or cinacalcet) and should be tailored to the term of pregnancy, severity of hypercalcemia, potential maternal-foetal risks involved, available surgical expertise and patient's choices.

Pregnancy Complicated by Primary Hyperparathyroidism-A Case Report on the Use of Cinacalcet

Adverse outcomes are common in pregnant women with primary hyperparathyroidism, but no established guidelines are available. Parathyroidectomy is advised in the second trimester. Cinacalcet, though category C, appears to be safe and may be used for moderate to severe hypercalcemia. Aspirin should be considered for preeclampsia prevention.

Persistent challenges in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis due to primary hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy

In this manuscript, we provide critical commentary on the systematic review by Augustin et al, which investigated acute pancreatitis induced by primary hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy. Although this is an infrequent complication, it poses severe risks to both maternal and fetal health. Due to its infrequent occurrence in clinical practice, this review is based on an analysis of individual case reports over the past 55 years. While this is not the first study to utilize this sampling method for primary hyperparathyroidism-induced acute pancreatitis, it is unique in that it has a sufficiently large sample size with statistically significant results. Our discussion focuses on the diagnostic challenges associated with this condition, which are grounded in the mechanisms of parathyroid hormone secretion and variations in serum calcium levels. We also address the limitations of the current review and suggest potential strategies to increase diagnostic accuracy and improve health outcomes for both mothers and fetuses during pregnancy.

Acute hypercalcemic crisis: A narrative review with a focus on pregnancy

A hypercalcemic crisis is a rare therapeutic emergency. However, it should not be overlooked, particularly during pregnancy, as it is associated with significant maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The most frequent etiology, including in pregnant women, is primary hyperparathyroidism. Knowledge of calcium-phosphate metabolism during pregnancy is important for understanding and interpreting the clinicopathological abnormalities observed in parathyroid pathology. Despite the expert consensus statement on parathyroid pathology issued by the European Society of Endocrinology, management of hypercalcemic crises remains poorly codified, particularly in pregnant women. Diagnostic examinations and hypocalcemia treatments are generally not recommended during pregnancy; however, it may be necessary to optimize preparation for surgery. Notably, surgery is the treatment of choice, particularly during pregnancy, when it should ideally be performed during the 2nd trimester. Therefore, a multidisciplinary approach is necessary. A consensus among European experts recommends systematic early detection of hypercalcemia during early pregnancy.

Hypercalcemia Associated with Pregnancy and Lactation

Hypercalcemia during pregnancy is a risk for adverse maternal and fetal consequences. Although primary hyperparathyroidism is by far the most common etiology of hypercalcemia in pregnancy, an array of other etiologies of hypercalcemia associated with pregnancy and lactation have been described. Parathyroidectomy continues to be the preferred treatment for primary hyperparathyroidism. Medical management options are limited.

Approach to the patient: Management of parathyroid diseases across pregnancy

Taking care of patients with parathyroid disorders during pregnancy requires consideration of the physiological fundamental changes in bone and mineral metabolism occurring in these women. Diagnostic and therapeutic procedures regarding primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) and hypoparathyroidism significantly differ from the non-pregnant population. PHPT should preferably be cured by parathyroidectomy before pregnancy as in women with hypercalcemic PHPT, maternal and fetal pregnancy complications seem to increase according to the degree of hypercalcemia. Parathyroidectomy, if needed during pregnancy, is preferentially performed in the second trimester. Conservative treatment is recommended for milder cases and is mainly restricted to hydration with only limited evidence regarding drug treatment. Women with hypoparathyroidism can be informed that there are no major concerns regarding disease associated infertility and that the risk of pregnancy complications is low if the disease is properly managed. Regular active surveillance is recommended as requirements for calcium and active vitamin D may change during the course of pregnancy in either direction, with an overall trend for rather reduced doses. Any woman suffering from parathyroid disorders during pregnancy requires further surveillance in the postpartum period and during lactation, as there is an increased risk of hypercalcemia after delivery. Newborns of mothers with parathyroid diseases should, depending on disease severity, be carefully monitored for calcium levels in the first days (to weeks) after delivery as intrauterine exposure to hyper- or hypocalcemia may impact their postnatal regulation of calcium metabolism.

Different treatment strategies in primary hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy

PURPOSE

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in pregnancy is rare enough and can be unrecognized because of nonspecific symptoms in most cases, but life-threatening complications for mother, fetus and neonate also occurs. PHPT requires frequent monitoring of the mother and fetus by a multidisciplinary team. Diagnostics and treatment approaches are limited and require individual risk-benefit assessment.

METHODS

In this paper we describe 3 cases of PHPT in pregnant women with different managing approaches (surveillance, drug therapy and surgical treatment) and successful outcomes. Additionally, the most actual literature data on this problem is reviewed.

RESULTS

The management of PHPT in pregnancy should be based on the clinical features, severity of hypercalcemia, gestational age and patient's preference. In the first case a conservative approach with low-calcium diet and oral hydration resulted in mother's reduced serum calcium level before delivery. The second patient had severe hypercalcemia and absolute indications for surgery that was successfully performed at 25 week of gestation. The third woman received cinacalcet because of severe hypercalcemia and potential perioperative risks in the third trimester with an improvement in well-being.

CONCLUSION

Nowadays parathyroidectomy is the best choice for patients with symptomatic PHPT and severe hypercalcemia. This intervention should be carried out preferably in the second trimester to avoid maternal and fetal complications. Mild forms of the disease can require just a conservative management. The drug treatment of PHPT during pregnancy is still controversial.

Guide of management of alterations in mineral and bone metabolism during gestation and lactation

OBJECTIVE

To provide practical recommendations for the management of mineral and bone metabolism alterations in pregnancy and lactation.

PARTICIPANTS

Members of the Working Group on Osteoporosis and Mineral Metabolism of the Spanish Society of Endocrinology and Nutrition.

METHODS

Recommendations were formulated according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system to describe both the strength of recommendations and the quality of evidence. A systematic search was carried out in Medline of the available evidence for each pathology. Papers in English with publication date until 29 February 2020 were included. A methodologist resolved the differences that arose during the process of reviewing the literature and formulating recommendations. The recommendations were discussed and approved by all members of the Working Group.

CONCLUSIONS

The document establishes practical recommendations based on evidence about the management of mineral and bone metabolism disorders in pregnancy and lactation.

Parathyroid adenoma in pregnancy: A case report and systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Primary hyperparathyroidism is a common disorder of the parathyroid glands. Parathyroid adenoma (PA) in pregnancy is a relatively rare disease, whose diagnosis and treatment is a challenging task. The aim of the present study is to present a new case of parathyroid adenoma during pregnancy and to give a detailed account of all reported cases of parathyroid adenoma during pregnancy in the literature.

STUDY DESIGN

A bibliographic research was performed, and characteristics of parathyroid adenomas in pregnancy such as age, gestational week at diagnosis, ionized calcium levels, genetic testing result, symptomatology, radiological method of localization, treatment method, gestational week at operation, and maternal/fetal complications were recorded.

RESULTS

A 34-year-old woman at her 25 weeks' gestation was diagnosed with parathyroid adenoma and was referred to our Surgical Department due to contraindication for conservative treatment. A parathyroidectomy was performed, and the maternal and fetal postoperative period was uneventful. Two hundred eleven cases of parathyroid adenoma in pregnancy were recorded in the literature, and statistical analysis was performed. The median gestational week at diagnosis was 21 ± 9.61 weeks. The mean level of ionized calcium was 2.69 mmol/l [SD = 0.75 (2.55-2.84 95% CI)]. Most cases were familiar (72.4%), while surgery was the preferred treatment option (67.3%). The majority of cases were asymptomatic (21.7%), and the main radiological method applied for localization was ultrasound (63.4%).

CONCLUSION

Parathyroid adenoma in pregnancy is a rare condition. The early diagnosis is of great importance as surgical treatment at the second trimester of pregnancy outweighs the maternal and fetal risks.

Primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy: observations from the Indian PHPT registry

PURPOSE

To present the data on primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in pregnancy from India obtained from a large database maintained over 15 years.

METHODS

We retrieved data of all women with gestational PHPT from the Indian PHPT registry between July 2005 and January 2020, and compared their clinical, biochemical, and other characteristics with age-matched non-pregnant women with PHPT.

RESULTS

Out of 386 women, eight had gestational PHPT (2.1%). The common presenting manifestations were acute pancreatitis (50%) and renal stone disease (50%); two were asymptomatic. Five women (62.5%) had a history of prior miscarriages. Seven patients (88%) had preeclampsia during the present gestation. Serum calcium and intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) were not statistically different from the age-matched non-pregnant PHPT group. Six patients with mild-to-moderate hypercalcemia were medically managed with hydration with/without cinacalcet while one patient underwent percutaneous ethanol ablation of the parathyroid adenoma; none underwent surgery during pregnancy. Mean serum calcium maintained from treatment initiation till delivery was 10.5 ± 0.4 mg/dl. One patient had spontaneous preterm delivery at 36 weeks; the remaining patients had normal vaginal delivery at term. None had severe preeclampsia/eclampsia. Fetal outcomes included low birth weight in three newborns (37.5%); two of them had hypocalcemic seizures.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of gestational PHPT was 2.1% in this largest Indian PHPT cohort, which is higher than that reported from the West (< 1%). Gestational PHPT can lead to preeclampsia and miscarriage. Pregnant PHPT patients with mild-to-moderate hypercalcemia can be managed with hydration/cinacalcet; however, long-term safety data and large-scale randomized controlled trials are required.

Primary Hyperparathyroidism During Pregnancy Treated With Parathyroidectomy: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

The primary objective of this study was to assess the safety of parathyroidectomy during pregnancy as treatment for hyperparathyroidism (HPTH) in comparison to nonsurgical management plans. Secondary outcomes involved analyzing the safety of surgery in the third trimester and the benefit of operating on asymptomatic pregnant patients.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

PRISMA-guided systematic review of all cases of primary hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy published in peer-reviewed English journals on PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and SCOPUS from 1980 to 2020.

RESULTS

A total of 75 manuscripts were included in this review describing 382 cases of gestational hyperparathyroidism. The median maternal age was 31 years. Overall, 108 cases (28.3%) underwent parathyroidectomy during pregnancy while 274 cases (71.7%) were treated nonsurgically. The majority of surgeries took place during the second trimester (67.6%). Complications and/or deaths were less likely to occur after surgery in the second trimester (4.48%) as compared to surgery in the third trimester (21.1%). Nine surgically treated cases resulted in infant complications and/or death; however, none of these nine cases had any surgical complications. Despite these complications, the overall infant complication rate for patients who underwent surgical treatment remained lower than that of patients treated with conservative therapy (9.1% vs. 38.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

This review suggests that for all pregnant patients with diagnosed HPTH, parathyroidectomy should be considered regardless of symptomatology. Our data suggest that parathyroidectomy is associated with fewer risks than more conservative treatments and results in better fetal outcomes. Surgery during the third trimester is feasible and surgery should be considered in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Laryngoscope, 131:1915-1921, 2021.

Bones and Primary Hyperparathyroidism

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is a disease caused by excessive and inappropriate secretion of parathyroid hormone resulting in hypercalcemia. It is usually diagnosed incidentally in the face of hypercalcemia, a complication such as osteoporosis or, more rarely, a renal complication with lithiasis. The clinical presentation reflects hypercalcemia and involves several organs, mainly the cardiovascular system, bones, and kidneys. However, most patients with PHPT are asymptomatic. The diagnosis is made based on laboratory tests. It is easy when serum calcium and parathyroid hormone levels are high, but difficult when one of these two values is normal. Normocalcemic PHPT can be diagnosed only after ruling out all causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism. Parathyroid imaging cannot diagnose it but guides the surgeon and rules out an associated thyroid abnormality. The reference treatment is surgery. The surgical indication is based on the presence or risk of complications, and it is the only treatment that prevents fractures. Pharmaceutical treatments have only limited effects on complications and are reserved for cases where surgery is contraindicated. After parathyroid surgery, the use of bisphosphonates must be avoided as they seem to interfere with the parathyroidectomy's fracture-preventing effects. If surgery is not indicated, a plan for monitoring laboratory values, bone density, and renal function will be established.

Calcium Metabolic Disorders in Pregnancy: Primary Hyperparathyroidism, Pregnancy-Induced Osteoporosis, and Vitamin D Deficiency in Pregnancy

Physiologic changes during pregnancy include calcium, phosphate, and calciotropic hormone status. Calcium metabolic disorders are rare in pregnancy and management with close calcium and vitamin D control and supplementation. Primary hyperparathyroidism is mostly asymptomatic and does not affect conception or pregnancy. It requires control of plasma calcium levels. Surgical intervention may be indicated. Data on severe cases are missing. Osteoporosis in or before pregnancy is rare but usually diagnosed from fractures. Medical treatment other than supplementation is contraindicated. Vitamin D deficiency is common and may affect conception and increase complications. Current evidence does not prove vitamin D supplements effective in improving outcomes.

Seventeen Cases of Primary Hyperparathyroidism in Pregnancy: A Call for Management Guidelines

Context

The risks of primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) to pregnant women and their fetuses appear to increase commensurate with serum calcium levels. The management strategy for pHPT must be adapted in pregnancy and should reflect the severity of hypercalcemia. However, no guidelines exist to assist clinicians.

Methods

The experience of a high-volume multidisciplinary endocrine surgical service in treating a consecutive series of pregnant women with pHPT referred for parathyroidectomy is presented and data are compared with a nonpregnant cohort with pHPT. A review of pHPT and pregnancy outcomes in the literature is provided.

Results

Seventeen pregnant women and 247 age range-matched nonpregnant women with pHPT were referred for surgery over 11 years. Mean serum calcium level was higher in the pregnant cohort (2.89 vs 2.78 mmol/L; P = 0.03). Preoperative localization with ultrasound succeeded in eight pregnant women (47%) and sestamibi scanning did in two of six (33% imaged preconception), compared with 84 (34%) and 102 (42%) control subjects, respectively (not significant). Parathyroidectomy was performed under general anesthesia between 12 and 28 weeks' gestation with no adverse pregnancy outcomes resulting. Cure rate was 100% vs 96% in controls.

Conclusion

pHPT in pregnancy is a threat to mother and child. Medical management may be appropriate in mild disease, but in moderate to severe disease, parathyroidectomy under general anesthesia in the second trimester is safe. Localization using ionizing radiation/MRI is unnecessary, because surgical intervention in a high-volume multidisciplinary setting has excellent outcomes. Guidelines on the topic would assist clinicians.

Gestational Gigantomastia Complicated by PTHrP-Mediated Hypercalcemia

CONTEXT

Gestational gigantomastia is an uncommon condition characterized by abnormal and excessive growth of breast tissue during an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy. Gestational gigantomastia may be accompanied by hypercalcemia, which in some cases has been associated with elevated serum levels of PTHrP. The source of the PTHrP in these cases has been suggested to be the enlarged breasts.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the rapid resolution of hypercalcemia and normalization of serum PTHrP after elective termination of pregnancy, indicating that the placenta was the source of the PTHrP.

DESIGN

A retrospective analysis of clinical and biochemical data over a 2-year interval and review of literature.

SETTING

An academic medical center.

PATIENT

A 33-year-old G8P4 female who presented at week 8 of pregnancy with gestational gigantomastia and subsequently developed marked hypercalcemia at week 13. Serum levels of PTH were suppressed but circulating PTHrP was elevated. There was no history of hypercalcemia or significant breast growth during previous pregnancies.

INTERVENTION

Hypercalcemia was poorly responsive to IV saline, prednisone, calcitonin, and cinacalcet. She requested termination of pregnancy at week 20.

RESULTS

Serum levels of calcium, PTH, and PTHrP normalized within 48 hours of termination of pregnancy.

CONCLUSION

The rapid resolution of hypercalcemia after termination of pregnancy, despite persistent gigantomastia, provides evidence for a pathologic role of the placenta in the excess production of PTHrP, possibly through an as yet uncharacterized placenta-breast hormonal axis.

A rare case of hypercalcemia-induced pancreatitis in a first trimester pregnant woman

The objective of the study is to report a case of acute pancreatitis secondary to hypercalcemia induced by primary hyperparathyroidism in a pregnant woman at the end of the first trimester. The case included a 32-year-old woman who was diagnosed with acute pancreatitis and severe hypercalcemia refractory to many regimens of medical therapy in the first trimester of pregnancy. She was successfully treated with parathyroidectomy in the early second trimester with complete resolution of hypercalcemia and pancreatitis. Neonatal course was unremarkable. To our best knowledge, this is a rare case when primary hyperparathyroidism and its complications are diagnosed in the first trimester of pregnancy. In conclusion, primary hyperparathyroidism is a rare life-threatening condition to the fetus and mother especially when associated with complications such as pancreatitis. Early therapeutic intervention is important to reduce the morbidity and mortality. Parathyroidectomy performed in the second trimester can be the only solution.