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Actions of Metformin in the Brain: A New Perspective of Metformin Treatments in Related Neurological Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158281. [PMID: 35955427 PMCID: PMC9368983 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Metformin is a first-line drug for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and one of the most commonly prescribed drugs in the world. Besides its hypoglycemic effects, metformin also can improve cognitive or mood functions in some T2DM patients; moreover, it has been reported that metformin exerts beneficial effects on many neurological disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Fragile X syndrome (FXS); however, the mechanism underlying metformin in the brain is not fully understood. Neurotransmission between neurons is fundamental for brain functions, and its defects have been implicated in many neurological disorders. Recent studies suggest that metformin appears not only to regulate synaptic transmission or plasticity in pathological conditions but also to regulate the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I balance) in neural networks. In this review, we focused on and reviewed the roles of metformin in brain functions and related neurological disorders, which would give us a deeper understanding of the actions of metformin in the brain.
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Cervera-Carles L, Clarimón J. Genetic and Epigenetic Architecture of Alzheimer’s Dementia. CURRENT GENETIC MEDICINE REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40142-016-0086-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Bertram L, Tanzi RE. The genetics of Alzheimer's disease. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2012; 107:79-100. [PMID: 22482448 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385883-2.00008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Genetic factors play a major role in determining a person's risk to develop Alzheimer's disease (AD). Rare mutations transmitted in a Mendelian fashion within affected families, for example, APP, PSEN1, and PSEN2, cause AD. In the absence of mutations in these genes, disease risk is largely determined by common polymorphisms that, in concert with each other and nongenetic risk factors, modestly impact risk for AD (e.g., the ε4-allele in APOE). Recent genome-wide screening approaches have revealed several additional AD susceptibility loci and more are likely to be discovered over the coming years. In this chapter, we review the current state of AD genetics research with a particular focus on loci that now can be considered established disease genes. In addition to reviewing the potential pathogenic relevance of these genes, we provide an outlook into the future of AD genetics research based on recent advances in high-throughput sequencing technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Bertram
- Department of Vertebrate Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
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Albani D, Batelli S, Pesaresi M, Prato F, Polito L, Forloni G, Pantieri R. A novel PSENEN mutation in a patient with complaints of memory loss and a family history of dementia. Alzheimers Dement 2009; 3:235-8. [PMID: 19595943 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2007.04.375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2006] [Revised: 02/19/2007] [Accepted: 04/24/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Presenilin enhancer-2 (PSENEN) is a fundamental component of the gamma-secretase protein complex involved in beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta APP) processing, a key event in Alzheimer's disease (AD) etiopathogenesis. In a mild cognitive impairment (MCI)-diagnosed woman, belonging to a family with a positive history for AD, we found that a novel PSENEN mutation (S73F) was the only genetic alteration of relevance. The mutation was absent in 253 age-matched controls. In an attempt to learn the biochemical effects of this mutation, we cultured skin primary fibroblasts from the patient and her daughter, and we assessed A beta(1-40) and Abeta(1-42) production. We did not find any relevant differences in comparison to age-matched, normal subjects. Although our data do not definitively support a pathogenetic role for this mutation, it does not appear to be a common polymorphism. Further follow-up is warranted in this family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Albani
- Department of Neuroscience, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Milan, Italy.
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Early-Onset Alzheimer Disease in an Italian Family With Presenilin-1 Double Mutation E318G and G394V. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2008; 22:184-7. [DOI: 10.1097/wad.0b013e31815a9dec] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Jia L, Ye J, L V H, Wang W, Zhou C, Zhang X, Xu J, Wang L, Jia J. Genetic association between polymorphisms of Pen2 gene and late onset Alzheimer's disease in the North Chinese population. Brain Res 2007; 1141:10-4. [PMID: 17280645 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2006] [Revised: 12/20/2006] [Accepted: 01/03/2007] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Presenilin enhancer 2 (Pen2) is a subunit of the gamma-secretase complex which cleaves amyloid precursor protein (APP) to generate amyloid beta (Abeta). We performed a systematic screening of all Pen2 exons and introns using direct sequencing to assess its role in the risk of developing late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). 947 subjects (LOAD: 467; CONTROLS 480) were recruited for this study. We obtained three polymorphisms: rs10402601, rs3817622, and rs2293688. Among these three polymorphisms, there was an interaction between rs3817622 and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotypes (P=0.002). In the subjects with APOE 4 allele, there was a significant difference in the distribution of alleles (P=0.003) and genotypes (P=0.007) between LOAD and control groups. ORs [95% confidence interval (CI)] of allele A and T/A+A/A genotypes were respectively 4.720 (1.517-10.654) and 3.886 (1.381-10.932) with allele T and genotype T/T as a reference. Our results suggest that there is an association between rs3817622 and the development of LOAD in APOE epsilon4 carriers within the northern Chinese population. It is possible allele A of the Pen2 gene increases the risk for LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Jia
- Department of Neurology, Xuan Wu Hospital of the Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
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Bertram L, Hsiao M, McQueen MB, Parkinson M, Mullin K, Blacker D, Tanzi RE. The LDLR locus in alzheimer's disease: A family-based study and meta-analysis of case-control data. Neurobiol Aging 2007; 28:18.e1-4. [PMID: 16378661 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2005] [Revised: 10/25/2005] [Accepted: 11/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Genetic linkage studies suggest the presence of an Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk gene on chromosome 19, acting independently of apolipoprotein E (apoE), a known AD risk factor on 19q13. The low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) is an interesting candidate because it maps within the linked interval, and is intimately involved in cholesterol homeostasis and the function of apoE. We tested three previously reported single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within LDLR in a large sample of discordant sibships from multiplex AD families, and failed to find evidence for genetic association with disease risk. In addition, we performed meta-analyses for SNP rs5925 on published data from five independent case control samples, but did not detect any significant summary odds ratios. Based on our data, it seems unlikely that these genetic variants in LDLR make a significant contribution to AD risk in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Bertram
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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Piscopo P, Manfredi A, Malvezzi-Campeggi L, Crestini A, Spadoni O, Cherchi R, Deiana E, Piras MR, Confaloni A. Genetic study of Sardinian patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2006; 398:124-8. [PMID: 16423463 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.12.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2005] [Revised: 12/02/2005] [Accepted: 12/23/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We describe the genetic analysis of an Alzheimer's disease (AD) sample derived from a genetically isolated population. Genetic assessment included the analysis of genes involved in AD, such as the genes for amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PSEN1) and presenilin 2 (PSEN2). We also assessed genes for some proteins that constitute the gamma-secretase complex: nicastrin (NCSTN), presenilin enhancer-2 (PEN2), in addition to the AD risk factor apolipoprotein E (APOE). Using polymerase chain reaction and single strand conformational polymorphism method, screens for APP, PSEN1 and PSEN2 genes revealed one mutation in PSEN1. Furthermore, we found an intronic +17G>C polymorphism in PEN2 which, in homozygous form, was greater in early onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD) compared to controls, and one haplotype in the NCSTN gene which was linked to EOAD and familial AD (FAD). Finally, the genotyping of APOE confirmed that the varepsilon4 allele could be a risk factor for the onset of AD, in particular for FAD subjects. In conclusion, these results show the existence of Sardinian genetic peculiarities, essential in studies regarding genetically inherited and multifactorial disorders, as AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Piscopo
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Bertram L, Hsiao M, Mullin K, Parkinson M, Menon R, Moscarillo TJ, Blacker D, Tanzi RE. ACAT1 is not associated with Alzheimer's disease in two independent family-based samples. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10:522-4. [PMID: 15768051 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
From Alois Alzheimer's description of Auguste D.'s brain in 1907 to George Glenner's biochemical dissection of beta-amyloid in 1984, the "amyloid hypothesis" of Alzheimer's disease has continued to gain support over the past two decades, particularly from genetic studies. Here we assess the amyloid hypothesis based on both known and putative Alzheimer's disease genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolph E Tanzi
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Massachussetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachussetts 02129, USA.
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Sala Frigerio C, Piscopo P, Calabrese E, Crestini A, Malvezzi Campeggi L, Civita di Fava R, Fogliarino S, Albani D, Marcon G, Cherchi R, Piras R, Forloni G, Confaloni A. PEN-2 gene mutation in a familial Alzheimer's disease case. J Neurol 2005; 252:1033-6. [PMID: 16170650 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-005-0799-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Revised: 12/22/2004] [Accepted: 01/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Genetic evidence indicates a central role of cerebral accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Beside presenilin 1 and 2, three other recently discovered proteins (Aph 1, PEN 2 and nicastrin) are associated with gamma-secretase activity, the enzymatic complex generating Abeta. Alterations in genes encoding these proteins were candidates for a role in AD. The PEN 2 gene was examined for unknown mutations and polymorphisms in sporadic and familial Alzheimer patients. Samples from age-matched controls (n=253), sporadic AD (SAD, n=256) and familial AD (FAD, n=140) were screened with DHPLC methodology followed by sequencing. Scanning the gene identified for the first time a missense mutation (D90N) in a patient with FAD. Three intronic polymorphisms were also identified, one of which had a higher presence of the mutated allele in AD subjects carrying the allele epsilon4 of apolipoprotein E than controls. The pathogenic role of the PEN-2 D90N mutation in AD is not clear, but the findings might lead to new studies on its functional and genetic role.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sala Frigerio
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via Eritrea 62, 20157, Milano, Italy
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