The polyglutamylated lateral chain of alpha-tubulin plays a key role in flagellar motility

Comparative proteomics and phosphoproteomics analysis reveals differential sperm motility in Mediterranean buffalo semen

High motility spermatozoa are good for cryopreservation and artificial insemination (AI) of mammalian semen. In this study, normal motility (NM) and low motility (LM) Mediterranean buffalo spermatozoa were compared using quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics techniques to screen for important proteins and phosphorylated proteins related to the motility of spermatozoa and to identify candidate protein molecular markers related to the quality of Mediterranean buffalo semen. Proteomics results identified 2550 proteins, with 119 proteins upregulated and 146 proteins downregulated in the LM spermatozoa versus the NM spermatozoa. The differentially abundant proteins were mainly involved in carbohydrate metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and tricarboxylic acid cycles. The phosphoproteomics analysis revealed 412 proteins, 1228 phosphorylated peptides, and 1465 phosphorylation modification sites. Compared to the NM group, 119 peptides were downregulated in the LM group, corresponding to 98 proteins, and 84 phosphorylated peptides were upregulated in the white matter, corresponding to 61 proteins. Differentially phosphorylated proteins were primarily involved in spermatogenesis, flagellate sperm motility, and glycolysis/gluconeogenesis. The combined proteomics and phosphoproteomics results identified the common proteins HMGB4, POC1B, PKM, LDHA, TBC1D21, and CBY2, whose main roles were related to spermatogenesis, sperm flagellar structure, and energy metabolism, which can be used as potential markers of Mediterranean buffalo sperm quality.

Spatial arrangement, polarity, and posttranslational modifications of the microtubule system in the Drosophila eye

We have analyzed the organization of the microtubule system in photoreceptor cells and pigment cells within the adult Drosophila compound eye. Immunofluorescence localization of tubulin and of Short stop, a spectraplakin that has been reported to be involved in the anchorage of microtubule minus ends at the membrane, suggests the presence of non-centrosomal microtubule-organizing centers at the distal tip of the visual cells. Ultrastructural analyses confirm that microtubules emanate from membrane-associated plaques at the site of contact with cone cells and that all microtubules are aligned in distal-proximal direction within the photoreceptor cells. Determination of microtubule polarities demonstrated that about 95% of the microtubules in photoreceptor cells are oriented with their plus end in the direction of the synapse. Pigment cells in the eye contain only microtubules aligned in distal-proximal direction, with their plus end pointing towards the retinal floor. There, two populations of microtubules can be distinguished, single microtubules and bundled microtubules, the latter associated with actin filaments. Whereas microtubules in both photoreceptor cells and pigment cells are acetylated and mono/bi-glutamylated on α-tubulin, bundled microtubules in pigment cells are apparently also mono/bi-glutamylated on β-tubulin, providing the possibility of binding different microtubule-associated proteins.

The mechanics of cilia and flagella: What we know and what we need to know

In this review, we provide a condensed overview of what is currently known about the mechanical functioning of the flagellar/ciliary axoneme. We also present a list of 10 specific areas where our current knowledge is incomplete and explain the benefits of further experimental investigation. Many of the physical parameters of the axoneme and its component parts have not been determined. This limits our ability to understand how the axoneme structure contributes to its functioning in several regards. It restricts our ability to understand how the mechanics of the structure contribute to the regulation of motor function. It also confines our ability to understand the three-dimensional workings of the axoneme and how various beating modes are accomplished. Lastly, it prevents accurate computational modeling of the axoneme in three-dimensions.

Excessive tubulin glutamylation leads to progressive cone-rod dystrophy and loss of outer segment integrity

Mutations in Cytosolic Carboxypeptidase-like Protein 5 (CCP5) are associated with vision loss in humans. To decipher the mechanisms behind CCP5-associated blindness, we generated a novel mouse model lacking CCP5. In this model, we found that increased tubulin glutamylation led to progressive cone-rod dystrophy, with cones showing a more pronounced and earlier functional loss than rod photoreceptors. The observed functional reduction was not due to cell death, levels, or the mislocalization of major phototransduction proteins. Instead, the increased tubulin glutamylation caused shortened photoreceptor axonemes and the formation of numerous abnormal membranous whorls that disrupted the integrity of photoreceptor outer segments (OS). Ultimately, excessive tubulin glutamylation led to the progressive loss of photoreceptors, affecting cones more severely than rods. Our results highlight the importance of maintaining tubulin glutamylation for normal photoreceptor function. Furthermore, we demonstrate that murine cone photoreceptors are more sensitive to disrupted tubulin glutamylation levels than rods, suggesting an essential role for axoneme in the structural integrity of the cone outer segment. This study provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of photoreceptor diseases linked to excessive tubulin glutamylation.

Metabolic profiling identifies Qrich2 as a novel glutamine sensor that regulates microtubule glutamylation and mitochondrial function in mouse sperm

In our prior investigation, we discerned loss-of-function variants within the gene encoding glutamine-rich protein 2 (QRICH2) in two consanguineous families, leading to various morphological abnormalities in sperm flagella and male infertility. The Qrich2 knockout (KO) in mice also exhibits multiple morphological abnormalities of the flagella (MMAF) phenotype with a significantly decreased sperm motility. However, how ORICH2 regulates the formation of sperm flagella remains unclear. Abnormal glutamylation levels of tubulin cause dysplastic microtubules and flagella, eventually resulting in the decline of sperm motility and male infertility. In the current study, by further analyzing the Qrich2 KO mouse sperm, we found a reduced glutamylation level and instability of tubulin in Qrich2 KO mouse sperm flagella. In addition, we found that the amino acid metabolism was dysregulated in both testes and sperm, leading to the accumulated glutamine (Gln) and reduced glutamate (Glu) concentrations, and disorderly expressed genes responsible for Gln/Glu metabolism. Interestingly, mice fed with diets devoid of Gln/Glu phenocopied the Qrich2 KO mice. Furthermore, we identified several mitochondrial marker proteins that could not be correctly localized in sperm flagella, which might be responsible for the reduced mitochondrial function contributing to the reduced sperm motility in Qrich2 KO mice. Our study reveals a crucial role of a normal Gln/Glu metabolism in maintaining the structural stability of the microtubules in sperm flagella by regulating the glutamylation levels of the tubulin and identifies Qrich2 as a possible novel Gln sensor that regulates microtubule glutamylation and mitochondrial function in mouse sperm.

The distinct initiation sites and processing activities of TTLL4 and TTLL7 in glutamylation of brain tubulin

Mammalian brain tubulins undergo a reversible posttranslational modification-polyglutamylation-which attaches a secondary polyglutamate chain to the primary sequence of proteins. Loss of its erasers can disrupt polyglutamylation homeostasis and cause neurodegeneration. Tubulin tyrosine ligase like 4 (TTLL4) and TTLL7 were known to modify tubulins, both with preference for the β-isoform, but differently contribute to neurodegeneration. However, differences in their biochemical properties and functions remain largely unknown. Here, using an antibody-based method, we characterized the properties of a purified recombinant TTLL4 and confirmed its sole role as an initiator, unlike TTLL7, which both initiates and elongates the side chains. Unexpectedly, TTLL4 produced stronger glutamylation immunosignals for α-isoform than β-isoform in brain tubulins. Contrarily, the recombinant TTLL7 raised comparable glutamylation immunoreactivity for two isoforms. Given the site selectivity of the glutamylation antibody, we analyzed modification sites of two enzymes. Tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed their incompatible site selectivity on synthetic peptides mimicking carboxyl termini of α1- and β2-tubulins and a recombinant tubulin. Particularly, in the recombinant α1A-tubulin, a novel region was found glutamylated by TTLL4 and TTLL7, that again at distinct sites. These results pinpoint different site specificities between two enzymes. Moreover, TTLL7 exhibits less efficiency to elongate microtubules premodified by TTLL4, suggesting possible regulation of TTLL7 elongation activity by TTLL4-initiated sites. Finally, we showed that kinesin behaves differentially on microtubules modified by two enzymes. This study underpins the different reactivity, site selectivity, and function of TTLL4 and TTLL7 on brain tubulins and sheds light on their distinct role in vivo.

Proximity Mapping of CCP6 Reveals Its Association with Centrosome Organization and Cilium Assembly

The cytosolic carboxypeptidase 6 (CCP6) catalyzes the deglutamylation of polyglutamate side chains, a post-translational modification that affects proteins such as tubulins or nucleosome assembly proteins. CCP6 is involved in several cell processes, such as spermatogenesis, antiviral activity, embryonic development, and pathologies like renal adenocarcinoma. In the present work, the cellular role of CCP6 has been assessed by BioID, a proximity labeling approach for mapping physiologically relevant protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and bait proximal proteins by mass spectrometry. We used HEK 293 cells stably expressing CCP6-BirA* to identify 37 putative interactors of this enzyme. This list of CCP6 proximal proteins displayed enrichment of proteins associated with the centrosome and centriolar satellites, indicating that CCP6 could be present in the pericentriolar material. In addition, we identified cilium assembly-related proteins as putative interactors of CCP6. In addition, the CCP6 proximal partner list included five proteins associated with the Joubert syndrome, a ciliopathy linked to defects in polyglutamylation. Using the proximity ligation assay (PLA), we show that PCM1, PIBF1, and NudC are true CCP6 physical interactors. Therefore, the BioID methodology confirms the location and possible functional role of CCP6 in centrosomes and centrioles, as well as in the formation and maintenance of primary cilia.

Disruption of tubulin-alpha4a polyglutamylation prevents aggregation of hyper-phosphorylated tau and microglia activation in mice

Dissociation of hyper-phosphorylated Tau from neuronal microtubules and its pathological aggregates, are hallmarks in the etiology of tauopathies. The Tau-microtubule interface is subject to polyglutamylation, a reversible posttranslational modification, increasing negative charge at tubulin C-terminal tails. Here, we asked whether tubulin polyglutamylation may contribute to Tau pathology in vivo. Since polyglutamylases modify various proteins other than tubulin, we generated a knock-in mouse carrying gene mutations to abolish Tuba4a polyglutamylation in a substrate-specific manner. We found that Tuba4a lacking C-terminal polyglutamylation prevents the binding of Tau and GSK3 kinase to neuronal microtubules, thereby strongly reducing phospho-Tau levels. Notably, crossbreeding of the Tuba4a knock-in mouse with the hTau tauopathy model, expressing a human Tau transgene, reversed hyper-phosphorylation and oligomerization of Tau and normalized microglia activation in brain. Our data highlight tubulin polyglutamylation as a potential therapeutic strategy in fighting tauopathies.

Pathologic oligomerization of hyper-phosphorylated Tau is a hallmark of tauopathies. Here the authors show that the loss of tubulin a4 polyglutamylation reverses tau hyperphosphorylation, oligomerization and microglia activation in a tauopathy mouse.

TTLL1 and TTLL4 polyglutamylases are required for the neurodegenerative phenotypes in pcd mice

Polyglutamylation is a dynamic posttranslational modification where glutamate residues are added to substrate proteins by 8 tubulin tyrosine ligase-like (TTLL) family members (writers) and removed by the 6 member Nna1/CCP family of carboxypeptidases (erasers). Genetic disruption of polyglutamylation leading to hyperglutamylation causes neurodegenerative phenotypes in humans and animal models; the best characterized being the Purkinje cell degeneration (pcd) mouse, a mutant of the gene encoding Nna1/CCP1, the prototypic eraser. Emphasizing the functional importance of the balance between glutamate addition and elimination, loss of TTLL1 prevents Purkinje cell degeneration in pcd. However, whether Ttll1 loss protects other vulnerable neurons in pcd, or if elimination of other TTLLs provides protection is largely unknown. Here using a mouse genetic rescue strategy, we characterized the contribution of Ttll1, 4, 5, 7, or 11 to the degenerative phenotypes in cerebellum, olfactory bulb and retinae of pcd mutants. Ttll1 deficiency attenuates Purkinje cell loss and function and reduces olfactory bulb mitral cell death and retinal photoreceptor degeneration. Moreover, degeneration of photoreceptors in pcd is preceded by impaired rhodopsin trafficking to the rod outer segment and likely represents the causal defect leading to degeneration as this too is rescued by elimination of TTLL1. Although TTLLs have similar catalytic properties on model substrates and several are highly expressed in Purkinje cells (e.g. TTLL5 and 7), besides TTLL1 only TTLL4 deficiency attenuated degeneration of Purkinje and mitral cells in pcd. Additionally, TTLL4 loss partially rescued photoreceptor degeneration and impaired rhodopsin trafficking. Despite their common properties, the polyglutamylation profile changes promoted by TTLL1 and TTLL4 deficiencies in pcd mice are very different. We also report that loss of anabolic TTLL5 synergizes with loss of catabolic Nna1/CCP1 to promote photoreceptor degeneration. Finally, male infertility in pcd is not rescued by loss of any Ttll. These data provide insight into the complexity of polyglutamate homeostasis and function in vivo and potential routes to ameliorate disorders caused by disrupted polyglutamylation.

Transcriptome analysis reveals the encystment-related lncRNA expression profile and coexpressed mRNAs in Pseudourostyla cristata

Ciliated protozoans form dormant cysts for survival under adverse conditions. The molecular mechanisms regulating this process are critical for understanding how single-celled eukaryotes adapt to the environment. Despite the accumulated data on morphology and gene coding sequences, the molecular mechanism by which lncRNAs regulate ciliate encystment remains unknown. Here, we first detected and analyzed the lncRNA expression profile and coexpressed mRNAs in dormant cysts versus vegetative cells in the hypotrich ciliate Pseudourostyla cristata by high-throughput sequencing and qRT-PCR. A total of 853 differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified. Compared to vegetative cells, 439 and 414 lncRNAs were upregulated and downregulated, respectively, while 47 lncRNAs were specifically expressed in dormant cysts. A lncRNA-mRNA coexpression network was constructed, and the possible roles of lncRNAs were screened. Three of the identified lncRNAs, DN12058, DN20924 and DN30855, were found to play roles in fostering encystment via their coexpressed mRNAs. These lncRNAs can regulate a variety of physiological activities that are essential for encystment, including autophagy, protein degradation, the intracellular calcium concentration, microtubule-associated dynein and microtubule interactions, and cell proliferation inhibition. These findings provide the first insight into the potentially functional lncRNAs and their coexpressed mRNAs involved in the dormancy of ciliated protozoa and contribute new evidence for understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating encystment.

The Emerging Roles of Axonemal Glutamylation in Regulation of Cilia Architecture and Functions

Cilia, which either generate coordinated motion or sense environmental cues and transmit corresponding signals to the cell body, are highly conserved hair-like structures that protrude from the cell surface among diverse species. Disruption of ciliary functions leads to numerous human disorders, collectively referred to as ciliopathies. Cilia are mechanically supported by axonemes, which are composed of microtubule doublets. It has been recognized for several decades that tubulins in axonemes undergo glutamylation, a post-translational polymodification, that conjugates glutamic acid chains onto the C-terminal tail of tubulins. However, the physiological roles of axonemal glutamylation were not uncovered until recently. This review will focus on how cells modulate glutamylation on ciliary axonemes and how axonemal glutamylation regulates cilia architecture and functions, as well as its physiological importance in human health. We will also discuss the conventional and emerging new strategies used to manipulate glutamylation in cilia.

Dinoflagellates alter their carbon and nutrient metabolic strategies across environmental gradients in the central Pacific Ocean

Marine microeukaryotes play a fundamental role in biogeochemical cycling through the transfer of energy to higher trophic levels and vertical carbon transport. Despite their global importance, microeukaryote physiology, nutrient metabolism and contributions to carbon cycling across offshore ecosystems are poorly characterized. Here, we observed the prevalence of dinoflagellates along a 4,600-km meridional transect extending across the central Pacific Ocean, where oligotrophic gyres meet equatorial upwelling waters rich in macronutrients yet low in dissolved iron. A combined multi-omics and geochemical analysis provided a window into dinoflagellate metabolism across the transect, indicating a continuous taxonomic dinoflagellate community that shifted its functional transcriptome and proteome as it extended from the euphotic to the mesopelagic zone. In euphotic waters, multi-omics data suggested that a combination of trophic modes were utilized, while mesopelagic metabolism was marked by cytoskeletal investments and nutrient recycling. Rearrangement in nutrient metabolism was evident in response to variable nitrogen and iron regimes across the gradient, with no associated change in community assemblage. Total dinoflagellate proteins scaled with particulate carbon export, with both elevated in equatorial waters, suggesting a link between dinoflagellate abundance and total carbon flux. Dinoflagellates employ numerous metabolic strategies that enable broad occupation of central Pacific ecosystems and play a dual role in carbon transformation through both photosynthetic fixation in the euphotic zone and remineralization in the mesopelagic zone.

Transcriptome analysis of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) reproductive tract revealed key pathways regulating spermatogenesis and post-testicular sperm maturation

The application of transcriptomics to the study of the reproductive tract in male turkeys can significantly increase our current knowledge regarding the specifics of bird reproduction. To characterize the complex transcriptomic changes that occur in the testis, epididymis, and ductus deferens, deep sequencing of male turkey RNA samples (n = 6) was performed, using Illumina RNA-Seq. The obtained sequence reads were mapped to the turkey genome, and relative expression values were calculated to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Statistical analysis revealed 1,682; 2,150; and 340 DEGs in testis/epididymis, testis/ductus deferens, and epididymis/ductus deferens comparisons, respectively. The expression of selected genes was validated using quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Bioinformatics analysis revealed several potential candidate genes involved in spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis and flagellum formation in the testis, and in post-testicular sperm maturation in the epididymis and ductus deferens. In the testis, genes were linked with the mitotic proliferation of spermatogonia and the meiotic division of spermatocytes. Histone ubiquitination and protamine phosphorylation were shown to be regulatory mechanisms for nuclear condensation during spermiogenesis. The characterization of testicular transcripts allowed a better understanding of acrosome formation and development and flagellum formation, including axoneme structures and functions. Spermatozoa motility during post-testicular maturation was linked to the development of flagellar actin filaments and biochemical processes, including Ca2+ influx and protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation. Spermatozoa quality appeared to be controlled by apoptosis and antioxidant systems in the epididymis and ductus deferens. Finally, genes associated with reproductive system development and morphogenesis were identified. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first genome-wide functional investigation of genes associated with tissue-specific processes in turkey reproductive tract. A catalog of genes worthy of further studies to understand the avian reproductive physiology and regulation was provided.

Insights of the tubulin code in gametes and embryos: from basic research to potential clinical applications in humans†

Microtubules are intracellular filaments that define in space and in time a large number of essential cellular functions such as cell division, morphology and motility, intracellular transport and flagella and cilia assembly. They are therefore essential for spermatozoon and oocyte maturation and function, and for embryo development. The dynamic and functional properties of the microtubules are in large part defined by various classes of interacting proteins including MAPs (microtubule associated proteins), microtubule-dependent motors, and severing and modifying enzymes. Multiple mechanisms regulate these interactions. One of them is defined by the high diversity of the microtubules themselves generated by the combination of different tubulin isotypes and by several tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs). This generates a so-called tubulin code that finely regulates the specific set of proteins that associates with a given microtubule thereby defining the properties and functions of the network. Here we provide an in depth review of the current knowledge on the tubulin isotypes and PTMs in spermatozoa, oocytes, and preimplantation embryos in various model systems and in the human species. We focus on functional implications of the tubulin code for cytoskeletal function, particularly in the field of human reproduction and development, with special emphasis on gamete quality and infertility. Finally, we discuss some of the knowledge gaps and propose future research directions.

A proteomic analysis of the statocyst endolymph in common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis): an assessment of acoustic trauma after exposure to sound

Recent studies, both in laboratory and sea conditions, have demonstrated damage after sound exposure in the cephalopod statocyst sensory epithelium, which secretes endolymph protein. Here, the proteomic analysis of the endolymph was performed before and after sound exposure to assess the effects of exposure to low intensity, low frequency sounds on the statocyst endolymph of the Mediterranean common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), determining changes in the protein composition of the statocyst endolymph immediately and 24 h after sound exposure. Significant differences in protein expression were observed, especially 24 h after exposure. A total of 37 spots were significantly different in exposed specimens, 17 of which were mostly related to stress and cytoskeletal structure. Among the stress proteins eight spots corresponding to eight hemocyanin isoforms were under-expressed possible due to lower oxygen consumption. In addition, cytoskeletal proteins such as tubulin alpha chain and intermediate filament protein were also down-regulated after exposure. Thus, endolymph analysis in the context of acoustic stress allowed us to establish the effects at the proteome level and identify the proteins that are particularly sensitive to this type of trauma.

A Survey on Tubulin and Arginine Methyltransferase Families Sheds Light on P. lividus Embryo as Model System for Antiproliferative Drug Development

Tubulins and microtubules (MTs) represent targets for taxane-based chemotherapy. To date, several lines of evidence suggest that effectiveness of compounds binding tubulin often relies on different post-translational modifications on tubulins. Among them, methylation was recently associated to drug resistance mechanisms impairing taxanes binding. The sea urchin is recognized as a research model in several fields including fertilization, embryo development and toxicology. To date, some α- and β-tubulin genes have been identified in P. lividus, while no data are available in echinoderms for arginine methyl transferases (PRMT). To evaluate the exploiting of the sea urchin embryo in the field of antiproliferative drug development, we carried out a survey of the expressed α- and β-tubulin gene sets, together with a comprehensive analysis of the PRMT gene family and of the methylable arginine residues in P. lividus tubulins. Because of their specificities, the sea urchin embryo may represent an interesting tool for dissecting mechanisms of tubulin targeting drug action. Therefore, results herein reported provide evidences supporting the P. lividus embryo as animal system for testing antiproliferative drugs.

Tumor suppressor RARRES1 links tubulin deglutamylation to mitochondrial metabolism and cell survival

RARRES1, a retinoic acid regulated carboxypeptidase inhibitor associated with fatty acid metabolism, stem cell differentiation and tumorigenesis is among the most commonly methylated loci in multiple cancers but has no known mechanism of action. Here we show that RARRES1 interaction with cytoplasmic carboxypeptidase 2 (CCP2) inhibits tubulin deglutamylation, which in turn regulates the mitochondrial voltage dependent anion channel (VDAC1), mitochondrial membrane potential, AMPK activation, energy balance and metabolically reprograms cells and zebrafish to a more energetic and anabolic phenotype. Depletion of RARRES1 also increases expression of stem cell markers, promotes anoikis, anchorage independent growth and insensitivity to multiple apoptotic stimuli. As depletion of CCP2 or inhibition of VDAC1 reverses the effects of RARRES1 depletion on energy balance and cell survival we conclude that RARRES1 modulation of CCP2-modulated tubulin-mitochondrial VDAC1 interactions is a fundamental regulator of cancer and stem cell metabolism and survival.

Chlamydomonas as a tool to study tubulin polyglutamylation

The diversity of α- and β-tubulin is facilitated by various post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as acetylation, tyrosination, glycylation, glutamylation, phosphorylation and methylation. These PTMs affect the stability and structure of microtubules as well as the interaction between microtubules and microtubule-associated proteins, including molecular motors. Therefore, it is extremely important to investigate the roles of tubulin PTMs for understanding the cell cycle, cell motility and intracellular trafficking. Tubulin PTMs were first studied in the 1980s, and considerable progress has been made since then; it is likely that additional mechanisms remain yet to be elucidated. Here, we discuss one such modification, tubulin glutamylation, and introduce our research on the eukaryotic flagellum of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Spatiotemporal manipulation of ciliary glutamylation reveals its roles in intraciliary trafficking and Hedgehog signaling

Tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs) occur spatiotemporally throughout cells and are suggested to be involved in a wide range of cellular activities. However, the complexity and dynamic distribution of tubulin PTMs within cells have hindered the understanding of their physiological roles in specific subcellular compartments. Here, we develop a method to rapidly deplete tubulin glutamylation inside the primary cilia, a microtubule-based sensory organelle protruding on the cell surface, by targeting an engineered deglutamylase to the cilia in minutes. This rapid deglutamylation quickly leads to altered ciliary functions such as kinesin-2-mediated anterograde intraflagellar transport and Hedgehog signaling, along with no apparent crosstalk to other PTMs such as acetylation and detyrosination. Our study offers a feasible approach to spatiotemporally manipulate tubulin PTMs in living cells. Future expansion of the repertoire of actuators that regulate PTMs may facilitate a comprehensive understanding of how diverse tubulin PTMs encode ciliary as well as cellular functions.

Tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs) occur spatiotemporally throughout cells, therefore assessing the physiological roles in specific subcellular compartments has been challenging. Here the authors develop a method to rapidly deplete tubulin glutamylation inside the primary cilia by targeting an engineered deglutamylase to the axoneme.

Mutations in the polyglutamylase gene TTLL5, expressed in photoreceptor cells and spermatozoa, are associated with cone-rod degeneration and reduced male fertility

Hereditary retinal degenerations encompass a group of genetic diseases characterized by extreme clinical variability. Following next-generation sequencing and autozygome-based screening of patients presenting with a peculiar, recessive form of cone-dominated retinopathy, we identified five homozygous variants [p.(Asp594fs), p.(Gln117*), p.(Met712fs), p.(Ile756Phe), and p.(Glu543Lys)] in the polyglutamylase-encoding gene TTLL5, in eight patients from six families. The two male patients carrying truncating TTLL5 variants also displayed a substantial reduction in sperm motility and infertility, whereas those carrying missense changes were fertile. Defects in this polyglutamylase in humans have recently been associated with cone photoreceptor dystrophy, while mouse models carrying truncating mutations in the same gene also display reduced fertility in male animals. We examined the expression levels of TTLL5 in various human tissues and determined that this gene has multiple viable isoforms, being highly expressed in testis and retina. In addition, antibodies against TTLL5 stained the basal body of photoreceptor cells in rat and the centrosome of the spermatozoon flagellum in humans, suggesting a common mechanism of action in these two cell types. Taken together, our data indicate that mutations in TTLL5 delineate a novel, allele-specific syndrome causing defects in two as yet pathogenically unrelated functions, reproduction and vision.

Post-thaw boar sperm motility is affected by prolonged storage of sperm in liquid nitrogen. A retrospective study

Owing to the quick genetic turnover of the pig industry, most AI-boar sires live 2-3 yr, a period during which for 1-2 yr their semen is extended and used in liquid form for AI. Despite showing low cryosurvival, affecting fertility after AI, boar semen is frozen for easiness of transport overseas and reposition of valuable genetics. For the latter, semen is stored in liquid nitrogen (LN₂, cryostorage) for many years, a controversial practice. Here we studied how length of cryostorage could affect sperm quality. Straws (0.5 mL) frozen using the same cryopreservation protocol at one specific location from AI- sires of proven fertility were stored in LN₂ for up to 8 yr. Post-thaw sperm quality was evaluated after 2, 4 or 8 yr of cryostorage, always compared to early thawing (15 d after freezing). Sperm motility and kinematics were evaluated post-thaw using CASA and sperm viability was cytometrically evaluated using specific fluorophores. Sperm viability was not affected by length of cryostorage, but total and progressive sperm motility were lower (p < 0.01) in sperm samples cryostored for 4 or 8 yr compared to those thawed 15 d after freezing. Cryostorage time affected sperm kinetics, but with greater intensity in the samples cryostored for 4 yr (p < 0.001) than in those for 2 yr (p < 0.01). The fact that the major phenotypic characteristic of boar spermatozoa, motility, is constrained by time of cryostorage should be considered when building cryobanks of pig semen. Attention should be placed on the finding that >2 yr of cryostorage time can be particularly detrimental for the post-thaw motility of some sires, which might require increasing sperm numbers for AI.

Post-Translational Tubulin Modifications in Human Astrocyte Cultures

The cytoskeletal protein tubulin plays an integral role in the functional specialization of many cell types. In the central nervous system, post-translational modifications and the expression of specific tubulin isotypes in neurons have been analyzed in greater detail than in their astrocytic counterparts. In this study, we characterized post-translational specifications of tubulin in human astrocytes using the normal human astrocyte (NHA; Lonza) commercial cell line of fetal origin. Immunocytochemical techniques were implemented in conjunction with confocal microscopy to image class III β-tubulin (βIII-tubulin), acetylated tubulin, and polyglutamylated tubulin using fluorescent antibody probes. Fluorescent probe intensity differences and colocalization were quantitatively assessed with the 'EBImage' package for the statistical programming language R. Colocalization analysis revealed that, although both acetylated tubulin and polyglutamylated tubulin showed a high degree of correlation with βIII-tubulin, the correlation with acetylated tubulin was stronger. Quantification and statistical analysis of fluorescence intensity demonstrated that the fluorescence probe intensity ratio for acetylated tubulin/βIII-tubulin was greater than the ratio for polyglutamylated tubulin/βIII-tubulin. The open source GEODATA set GSE819950, comprising RNA sequencing data for the NHA cell line, was mined for the expression of enzymes responsible for tubulin modifications. Our analysis uncovered greater expression at the mRNA level for enzymes reported to function in acetylation and deacetylation as compared to enzymes implicated in glutamylation and deglutamylation. Taken together, the results represent a step toward unraveling the tubulin isotypic expression profile and post-translational modification patterns in astrocytes during human brain development.

Molecular interactions between tubulin tails and glutamylases reveal determinants of glutamylation patterns

Posttranslational modifications of tubulin currently emerge as key regulators of microtubule functions. Polyglutamylation generates a variety of modification patterns that are essential for controlling microtubule functions in different cell types and organelles, and deregulation of these patterns has been linked to ciliopathies, cancer and neurodegeneration. How the different glutamylating enzymes determine precise modification patterns has so far remained elusive. Using computational modelling, molecular dynamics simulations and mutational analyses we now show how the carboxy-terminal tails of tubulin bind into the active sites of glutamylases. Our models suggest that the glutamylation sites on α- and β-tubulins are determined by the positioning of the tails within the catalytic pocket. Moreover, we found that the binding modes of α- and β-tubulin tails are highly similar, implying that most enzymes could potentially modify both, α- and β-tubulin. This supports a model in which the binding of the enzymes to the entire microtubule lattice, but not the specificity of the C-terminal tubulin tails to their active sites, determines the catalytic specificities of glutamylases.

Role of Cytosolic Carboxypeptidase 5 in Neuronal Survival and Spermatogenesis

Proteins may undergo a type of posttranslational modification – polyglutamylation, where a glutamate residue is enzymatically linked to the γ-carboxyl group of a glutamate in the primary sequence of proteins and additional glutamates are then sequentially added via α-carboxyl–linkages to the growing glutamate side chain. Nna1 (a.k.a. CCP1) defines the 6-member cytosolic carboxypeptidase (CCP) family that metabolizes polyglutamate side chain and its loss results in neurodegeneration and male infertility. Whereas most CCPs catalyze hydrolysis of α-carboxyl-linked glutamates, CCP5 uniquely metabolizes the γ-carboxyl linked, branch point glutamate. Using purified recombinant mouse CCP5, we confirmed that it metabolized γ-carboxyl-linked glutamate of synthetic substrates and tubulin. Despite this unique feature and its indispensible functions in lower species, we found that unlike Nna1, CCP5 is not essential for neuronal survival in mouse. CCP5 deficiency does cause male infertility. However, the mechanism by which this occurs is distinct from that of Nna1 loss. Instead, it is phenotypically reminiscent of the infertility of olt mice. Our findings suggest that Nna1 and CCP5 do not work coordinately in the same pathway in either the nervous system or spermatogenesis. This is the first study addressing the function of CCP5 in mammals.

Increase in α-tubulin modifications in the neuronal processes of hippocampal neurons in both kainic acid-induced epileptic seizure and Alzheimer's disease

Neurodegeneration includes acute changes and slow-developing alterations, both of which partly involve common cellular machinery. During neurodegeneration, neuronal processes are impaired along with dysregulated post-translational modifications (PTMs) of cytoskeletal proteins. In neuronal processes, tubulin undergoes unique PTMs including a branched form of modification called glutamylation and loss of the C-terminal tyrosine residue and the penultimate glutamic acid residue forming Δ2-tubulin. Here, we investigated the state of two PTMs, glutamylation and Δ2 form, in both acute and slow-developing neurodegenerations, using a newly generated monoclonal antibody, DTE41, which had 2-fold higher affinity to glutamylated Δ2-tubulin, than to unmodified Δ2-tubulin. DTE41 recognised glutamylated Δ2-tubulin preferentially in immunostaining than in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting. In normal mouse brain, DTE41 stained molecular layer of the cerebellum as well as synapse-rich regions in pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex. In kainic acid-induced epileptic seizure, DTE41-labelled signals were increased in the hippocampal CA3 region, especially in the stratum lucidum. In the hippocampi of post-mortem patients with Alzheimer's disease, intensities of DTE41 staining were increased in mossy fibres in the CA3 region as well as in apical dendrites of the pyramidal neurons. Our findings indicate that glutamylation on Δ2-tubulin is increased in both acute and slow-developing neurodegeneration.

Tubulin C-terminal Post-translational Modifications Do Not Occur in Wood Forming Tissue of Populus

Cortical microtubules (MTs) are evolutionarily conserved cytoskeletal components with specialized roles in plants, including regulation of cell wall biogenesis. MT functions and dynamics are dictated by the composition of their monomeric subunits, α- (TUA) and β-tubulins (TUB), which in animals and protists are subject to both transcriptional regulation and post-translational modifications (PTM). While spatiotemporal regulation of tubulin gene expression has been reported in plants, whether and to what extent tubulin PTMs occur in these species remain poorly understood. We chose the woody perennial Populus for investigation of tubulin PTMs in this study, with a particular focus on developing xylem where high tubulin transcript levels support MT-dependent secondary cell wall deposition. Mass spectrometry and immunodetection concurred that detyrosination, non-tyrosination and glutamylation were essentially absent in tubulins isolated from wood-forming tissues of P. deltoides and P. tremula ×alba. Label-free quantification of tubulin isotypes and RNA-Seq estimation of tubulin transcript abundance were largely consistent with transcriptional regulation. However, two TUB isotypes were detected at noticeably lower levels than expected based on RNA-Seq transcript abundance in both Populus species. These findings led us to conclude that MT composition during wood formation depends exclusively on transcriptional and, to a lesser extent, translational regulation of tubulin isotypes.

The IN/OUT assay: a new tool to study ciliogenesis

Background

Nearly all cells have a primary cilia on their surface, which functions as a cellular antennae. Primary cilia assembly begins intracellularly and eventually emerges extracellularly. However, current ciliogenesis assays, which detect cilia length and number, do not monitor ciliary stages.

Methods

We developed a new assay that detects antibody access to a fluorescently tagged ciliary transmembrane protein, which revealed three ciliary states: classified as ‘inside,’ ‘outside,’ or ‘partial’ cilia.

Results

Strikingly, most cilia in RPE cells only partially emerged and many others were long and intracellular, which would be indistinguishable by conventional assays. Importantly, these states switch with starvation-induced ciliogenesis and the cilia can emerge both on the dorsal and ventral surface of the cell. Our assay further allows new molecular and functional studies of the ‘ciliary pocket,’ a deep plasma membrane invagination whose function is unclear. Molecularly, we show colocalization of EHD1, Septin 9 and glutamylated tubulin with the ciliary pocket.

Conclusions

Together, the IN/OUT assay is not only a new tool for easy and quantifiable visualization of different ciliary stages, but also allows molecular characterization of intermediate ciliary states.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13630-016-0044-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Loss of RPGR glutamylation underlies the pathogenic mechanism of retinal dystrophy caused by TTLL5 mutations

Mutations in the X-linked retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR) gene are a major cause of retinitis pigmentosa, a blinding retinal disease resulting from photoreceptor degeneration. A photoreceptor specific ORF15 variant of RPGR (RPGR(ORF15)), carrying multiple Glu-Gly tandem repeats and a C-terminal basic domain of unknown function, localizes to the connecting cilium where it is thought to regulate cargo trafficking. Here we show that tubulin tyrosine ligase like-5 (TTLL5) glutamylates RPGR(ORF15) in its Glu-Gly-rich repetitive region containing motifs homologous to the α-tubulin C-terminal tail. The RPGR(ORF15) C-terminal basic domain binds to the noncatalytic cofactor interaction domain unique to TTLL5 among TTLL family glutamylases and targets TTLL5 to glutamylate RPGR. Only TTLL5 and not other TTLL family glutamylases interacts with RPGR(ORF15) when expressed transiently in cells. Consistent with this, a Ttll5 mutant mouse displays a complete loss of RPGR glutamylation without marked changes in tubulin glutamylation levels. The Ttll5 mutant mouse develops slow photoreceptor degeneration with early mislocalization of cone opsins, features resembling those of Rpgr-null mice. Moreover TTLL5 disease mutants that cause human retinal dystrophy show impaired glutamylation of RPGR(ORF15) Thus, RPGR(ORF15) is a novel glutamylation substrate, and this posttranslational modification is critical for its function in photoreceptors. Our study uncovers the pathogenic mechanism whereby absence of RPGR(ORF15) glutamylation leads to retinal pathology in patients with TTLL5 gene mutations and connects these two genes into a common disease pathway.

Posttranslational modifications of α-tubulin in alzheimer disease

Background

In Alzheimer disease (AD), hyperphosphorylation of tau proteins results in microtubule destabilization and cytoskeletal abnormalities. Our prior ultra-morphometric studies documented a clear reduction in microtubules in pyramidal neurons in AD compared to controls, however, this reduction did not coincide with the presence of paired helical filaments. The latter suggests the presence of compensatory mechanism(s) that stabilize microtubule dynamics despite the loss of tau binding and stabilization. Microtubules are composed of tubulin dimers which are subject to posttranslational modifications that affect the stability and function of microtubules.

Methods

In this study, we performed a detailed analysis on changes in the posttranslational modifications in tubulin in postmortem human brain tissues from AD patients and age-matched controls by immunoblot and immunocytochemistry.

Results

Consistent with our previous study, we found decreased levels of α-tubulin in AD brain. Levels of tubulin with various posttranslational modifications such as polyglutamylation, tyrosination, and detyrosination were also proportionally reduced in AD brain, but, interestingly, there was an increase in the proportion of the acetylated α-tubulin in the remaining α-tubulin. Tubulin distribution was changed from predominantly in the processes to be more accumulated in the cell body. The number of processes containing polyglutamylated tubulin was well preserved in AD neurons. While there was a cell autonomous detrimental effect of NFTs on tubulin, this is likely a gradual and slow process, and there was no selective loss of acetylated or polyglutamylated tubulin in NFT-bearing neurons.

Conclusions

Overall, we suggest that the specific changes in tubulin modification in AD brain likely represent a compensatory response.

Comparison of the enzymatic and functional properties of three cytosolic carboxypeptidase family members

Nna1 (CCP1) defines a subfamily of M14 metallocarboxypeptidases (CCP1-6) and is mutated in pcd (Purkinje cell degeneration) mice. Nna1, CCP4, and CCP6 are involved in the post-translational process of polyglutamylation, where they catalyze the removal of polyglutamate side chains. However, it is unknown whether these three cytosolic carboxypeptidases share identical enzymatic properties and redundant biological functions. We show that like Nna1, purified recombinant CCP4 and CCP6 deglutamylate tubulin, but unlike Nna1, neither rescues Purkinje cell degeneration in pcd mice, indicating that they do not have identical functions. Using biotin-based synthetic substrates, we established that the three enzymes are distinguishable based upon individual preferences for glutamate chain length, the amino acid immediately adjacent to the glutamate chain, and whether their activity is enhanced by nearby acidic amino acids. Nna1 and CCP4 remove the C-terminal glutamate from substrates with two or more glutamates, whereas CCP6 requires four or more glutamates. CCP4 behaves as a promiscuous glutamase, with little preference for chain length or neighboring amino acid composition. Besides glutamate chain length dependence, Nna1 and CCP6 exhibit higher k(cat)/K(m) when substrates contain nearby acidic amino acids. All cytosolic carboxypeptidases exhibit a monoglutamase activity when aspartic acid precedes a single glutamate, which, together with their other individual preferences for flanking amino acids, greatly increases the potential substrates for these enzymes and the biological processes in which they act. Additionally, Nna1 metabolized substrates mimicking the C terminus of tubulin in a way suggesting that the tyrosinated form of tubulin will accumulate in pcd mice.

HDAC6 deacetylates alpha tubulin in sperm and modulates sperm motility in Holtzman rat

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is an alpha (α)-tubulin deacetylase and its over-expression has been demonstrated to promote chemotactic cell movement. Motility in sperm is driven by the flagella, the cytoskeletal structure comprising the microtubules, which are heterodimers of α- and β-tubulins. We have hypothesized that HDAC6, by virtue of being an α-tubulin deacetylase, might modulate sperm motility. However, the presence of HDAC6 on sperm has hitherto not been reported. In this study, we have demonstrated, for the first time, the presence of HDAC6 transcript and protein in the testicular and caudal sperm of rat. We have observed a significantly overlapping expression of HDAC6 with acetyl α-tubulin (Ac α-tubulin) in the mid-piece and principal piece of sperm flagella, and the co-precipitation of α-tubulin and Ac α-tubulin together with HDAC6 and vice versa in sperm lysates. This indicates that HDAC6 interacts with α-tubulin. The HDAC6 activity of sperm, sperm motility and status of Ac α-tubulin investigated in the presence of HDAC inhibitors Trichostatin A, Tubastatin A and sodium butyrate demonstrate that HDAC6 in sperm is catalytically active and that inhibitors of HDAC6 increase acetylation and restrict sperm motility. Thus, we show that (1) active HDAC6 enzyme is present in sperm, (2) HDAC6 in sperm is able to deacetylate α-tubulin, (3) inhibition of HDAC6 results in increased Ac α-tubulin expression and (4) HDAC6 inhibition affects sperm motility. This evidence suggests that HDAC6 is involved in modulating sperm movement.

Characterisation of polyglutamylases in trypanosomatids

Microtubules are subject to post-translational modifications, which are thought to have crucial roles in the function of complex microtubule-based organelles. Among these, polyglutamylation was relatively recently discovered, and was related to centrosome stability, axonemal maintenance and mobility, and neurite outgrowth. In trypanosomatids, parasitic protozoa where microtubules constitute the essential component of the cytoskeleton, the function of polyglutamylated microtubules is unknown. Here, in order to better understand the role of this conserved but highly divergent post-translational modification, we characterised glutamylation and putative polyglutamylases in these parasites. We showed that microtubules are intensely glutamylated in all stages of the cell cycle, including interphase. Moreover, a cell cycle-dependent gradient of glutamylation was observed along the cell anteroposterior axis, which might be related to active growth of the microtubule 'corset' during the cell cycle. We also identified two putative polyglutamylase proteins (among seven analysed here) which appeared to be clearly and directly involved in microtubule polyglutamylation in in vitro activity assays. Paradoxically, in view of the importance of tubulins and of their extensive glutamylation in these organisms, RNA interference-based knockdown of all these proteins had no effect on cell growth, suggesting either functional redundancy or, more likely, subtle roles such as function modulation or interaction with protein partners.

Cytosolic carboxypeptidase CCP6 is required for megakaryopoiesis by modulating Mad2 polyglutamylation

Ye et al. identify cytosolic carboxypeptidase CCP6 as a protein required for the regulation of bone marrow megakaryopoiesis in mice. The authors find that Mad2 (a core component of spindle checkpoint in mitosis) is a substrate of CCP6 in megakaryocytes and is polyglutamylated by proteins TTLL6 and TTLL4, subsequently affecting the activity of Aurora B kinase. Mad2 is thus additionally implicated in megakaryopoiesis regulation.

Bone marrow progenitor cells develop into mature megakaryocytes (MKs) to produce platelets for hemostasis and other physiological functions. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying megakaryopoiesis are not completely defined. We show that cytosolic carboxypeptidase (CCP) 6 deficiency in mice causes enlarged spleens and increased platelet counts with underdeveloped MKs and dysfunctional platelets. The prominent phenotypes of CCP6 deficiency are different from those of CCP1-deficient mice. We found that CCP6 and tubulin tyrosine ligase-like family (TTLL) members TTLL4 and TTLL6 are highly expressed in MKs. We identify Mad2 (mitotic arrest deficient 2) as a novel substrate for CCP6 and not CCP1. Mad2 can be polyglutamylated by TTLL4 and TTLL6 to modulate the maturation of MKs. CCP6 deficiency causes hyperglutamylation of Mad2 to promote activation of Aurora B, leading to suppression of MK maturation. We reveal that Mad2 polyglutamylation plays a critical role in the regulation of megakaryopoiesis.

Tubulin glycylases are required for primary cilia, control of cell proliferation and tumor development in colon

TTLL3 and TTLL8 are tubulin glycine ligases catalyzing posttranslational glycylation of microtubules. We show here for the first time that these enzymes are required for robust formation of primary cilia. We further discover the existence of primary cilia in colon and demonstrate that TTLL3 is the only glycylase in this organ. As a consequence, colon epithelium shows a reduced number of primary cilia accompanied by an increased rate of cell division in TTLL3-knockout mice. Strikingly, higher proliferation is compensated by faster tissue turnover in normal colon. In a mouse model for tumorigenesis, lack of TTLL3 strongly promotes tumor development. We further demonstrate that decreased levels of TTLL3 expression are linked to the development of human colorectal carcinomas. Thus, we have uncovered a novel role for tubulin glycylation in primary cilia maintenance, which controls cell proliferation of colon epithelial cells and plays an essential role in colon cancer development.

hemingway is required for sperm flagella assembly and ciliary motility in Drosophila

Motile cilia play important functions in many organisms. In Drosophila, hemingway (hmw) encodes a novel protein conserved in species with motile cilia. hmw-mutant flies are hearing impaired and male sterile. HMW is required for acquisition of motile properties of cilia in the fly sound receiver and stability of the sperm axoneme.

Cilia play major functions in physiology and development, and ciliary dysfunctions are responsible for several diseases in humans called ciliopathies. Cilia motility is required for cell and fluid propulsion in organisms. In humans, cilia motility deficiencies lead to primary ciliary dyskinesia, with upper-airways recurrent infections, left–right asymmetry perturbations, and fertility defects. In Drosophila, we identified hemingway (hmw) as a novel component required for motile cilia function. hmw encodes a 604–amino acid protein characterized by a highly conserved coiled-coil domain also found in the human orthologue, KIAA1430. We show that HMW is conserved in species with motile cilia and that, in Drosophila, hmw is expressed in ciliated sensory neurons and spermatozoa. We created hmw-knockout flies and found that they are hearing impaired and male sterile. hmw is implicated in the motility of ciliated auditory sensory neurons and, in the testis, is required for elongation and maintenance of sperm flagella. Because HMW is absent from mature flagella, we propose that HMW is not a structural component of the motile axoneme but is required for proper acquisition of motile properties. This identifies HMW as a novel, evolutionarily conserved component necessary for motile cilium function and flagella assembly.

Disruption of Ttll5/stamp gene (tubulin tyrosine ligase-like protein 5/SRC-1 and TIF2-associated modulatory protein gene) in male mice causes sperm malformation and infertility

TTLL5/STAMP (tubulin tyrosine ligase-like family member 5) has multiple activities in cells. TTLL5 is one of 13 TTLLs, has polyglutamylation activity, augments the activity of p160 coactivators (SRC-1 and TIF2) in glucocorticoid receptor-regulated gene induction and repression, and displays steroid-independent growth activity with several cell types. To examine TTLL5/STAMP functions in whole animals, mice were prepared with an internal deletion that eliminated several activities of the Stamp gene. This mutation causes both reduced levels of STAMP mRNA and C-terminal truncation of STAMP protein. Homozygous targeted mutant (Stamp(tm/tm)) mice appear normal except for marked decreases in male fertility associated with defects in progressive sperm motility. Abnormal axonemal structures with loss of tubulin doublets occur in most Stamp(tm/tm) sperm tails in conjunction with substantial reduction in α-tubulin polyglutamylation, which closely correlates with the reduction in mutant STAMP mRNA. The axonemes in other structures appear unaffected. There is no obvious change in the organs for sperm development of WT versus Stamp(tm/tm) males despite the levels of WT STAMP mRNA in testes being 20-fold higher than in any other organ examined. This defect in male fertility is unrelated to other Ttll genes or 24 genes previously identified as important for sperm function. Thus, STAMP appears to participate in a unique, tissue-selective TTLL-mediated pathway for α-tubulin polyglutamylation that is required for sperm maturation and motility and may be relevant for male fertility.

A structural and functional analysis of Nna1 in Purkinje cell degeneration (pcd) mice

The axotomy-inducible enzyme Nna1 defines a subfamily of M14 metallocarboxypeptidases, and its mutation underlies the Purkinje cell degeneration (pcd) mouse. However, the relationship among its catalytic activity, substrate specificities, and the critical processes of neurodegeneration/axon regeneration is incompletely understood. Here we used a transgenic rescue strategy targeting expression of modified forms of Nna1 to Purkinje cells in pcd mice to determine structure-activity relationships for neuronal survival and in parallel characterized the enzymatic properties of purified recombinant Nna1. The Nna1 subfamily uniquely shares conserved substrate-determining residues with aspartoacylase that, when mutated, cause Canavan disease. Homologous mutations (D1007E and R1078E) inactivate Nna1 in vivo, as does mutation of its catalytic glutamate (E1094A), which implies that metabolism of acidic substrates is essential for neuronal survival. Consistent with reports that Nna1 is a tubulin glutamylase, recombinant Nna1-but not the catalytic mutants-removes glutamate from tubulin. Recombinant Nna1 metabolizes synthetic substrates with 2 or more C-terminal glutamate (but not aspartate) residues (V(max) for 3 glutamates is ∼7-fold higher than 2 glutamates although K(M) is similar). Catalysis is not ATP/GTP dependent, and mutating the ATP/GTP binding site of Nna1 has no effect in vivo. Nna1 is a monomeric enzyme essential for neuronal survival through hydrolysis of polyglutamate-containing substrates.

Evolutionary pathways in BRCA1-associated breast tumors

BRCA1-associated breast tumors display loss of BRCA1 and frequent somatic mutations of PTEN and TP53. Here we describe the analysis of BRCA1, PTEN, and p53 at the single cell level in 55 BRCA1-associated breast tumors and computational methods to predict the relative temporal order of somatic events, on the basis of the frequency of cells with single or combined alterations. Although there is no obligatory order of events, we found that loss of PTEN is the most common first event and is associated with basal-like subtype, whereas in the majority of luminal tumors, mutation of TP53 occurs first and mutant PIK3CA is rarely detected. We also observed intratumor heterogeneity for the loss of wild-type BRCA1 and increased cell proliferation and centrosome amplification in the normal breast epithelium of BRCA1 mutation carriers. Our results have important implications for the design of chemopreventive and therapeutic interventions in this high-risk patient population.

The dynamic cytoskeleton of the developing male germ cell

Mammalian spermatogenesis is characterised by dramatic cellular change to transform the non-polar spermatogonium into a highly polarised and functional spermatozoon. The acquisition of cell polarity is a requisite step for formation of viable sperm. The polarity of the spermatozoon is clearly demonstrated by the acrosome at the apical pole of the cell and the flagellum at the opposite end. Spermatogenesis consists of three basic phases: mitosis, meiosis and spermiogenesis. The final phase represents the period of greatest cellular change where cell-type specific organelles such as the acrosome and the flagellum form, the nucleus migrates to the plasma membrane and elongates, chromatin condenses and residual cytoplasm is removed. An important feature of spermatogenesis is the change in the cytoskeleton that occurs throughout this pathway. In this review, the author will provide an overview of these transformations and provide insight into possible modes of regulation of these rearrangements during spermatogenesis. Although primary focus will be given to the microtubule cytoskeleton, the importance of actin filaments to the cellular transformation of the male germ cell will also be discussed.

Ciliary and flagellar structure and function--their regulations by posttranslational modifications of axonemal tubulin

Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are evolutionarily conserved microtubule-based organelles protruding from the cell surface. They perform dynein-driven beating which contributes to cell locomotion or flow generation. They also play important roles in sensing as cellular antennae, which allows cells to respond to various external stimuli. The main components of cilia and flagella, α- and β-tubulins, are known to undergo various posttranslational modifications (PTMs), including phosphorylation, palmitoylation, tyrosination/detyrosination, Δ2 modification, acetylation, glutamylation, and glycylation. Recent identification of tubulin-modifying enzymes, especially tubulin tyrosine ligase-like proteins which perform tubulin glutamylation and glycylation, has demonstrated the importance of tubulin modifications for the assembly and functions of cilia and flagella. In this chapter, we review recent work on PTMs of ciliary and flagellar tubulins in conjunction with discussing the basic knowledge.

Balanced reciprocal translocation t(5;13)(q33;q12) and 9q31.1 microduplication in a man suffering from infertility and pollinosis

We describe the first case of two chromosomal abnormalities, balanced reciprocal translocation t(5;13)(q33;q12.1) and a microduplication in the region 9q31.1, in a man suffering from infertility and pollinosis. In the region 13q12.1 is located the TUBA3C (tubulin, alpha 3c) gene, which plays an important dynamic role in the motility of flagella. This case might support the opinion that haploinsufficiency of the TUBA3C gene could be the cause of sperm immotility and abnormal sperm morphology, resulting in infertility in the patient. Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array analysis revealed a novel 9q31.1 microduplication inherited from both parents, which contributes to the genomic instability.

Post-translational regulation of the microtubule cytoskeleton: mechanisms and functions

Half a century of biochemical and biophysical experiments has provided attractive models that may explain the diverse functions of microtubules within cells and organisms. However, the notion of functionally distinct microtubule types has not been explored with similar intensity, mostly because mechanisms for generating divergent microtubule species were not yet known. Cells generate distinct microtubule subtypes through expression of different tubulin isotypes and through post-translational modifications, such as detyrosination and further cleavage to Δ2-tubulin, acetylation, polyglutamylation and polyglycylation. The recent discovery of enzymes responsible for many tubulin post-translational modifications has enabled functional studies demonstrating that these post-translational modifications may regulate microtubule functions through an amazing range of mechanisms.

Cryo-electron tomography reveals conserved features of doublet microtubules in flagella

The axoneme forms the essential and conserved core of cilia and flagella. We have used cryo-electron tomography of Chlamydomonas and sea urchin flagella to answer long-standing questions and to provide information about the structure of axonemal doublet microtubules (DMTs). Solving an ongoing controversy, we show that B-tubules of DMTs contain exactly 10 protofilaments (PFs) and that the inner junction (IJ) and outer junction between the A- and B-tubules are fundamentally different. The outer junction, crucial for the initiation of doublet formation, appears to be formed by close interactions between the tubulin subunits of three PFs with unusual tubulin interfaces; other investigators have reported that this junction is weakened by mutations affecting posttranslational modifications of tubulin. The IJ consists of an axially periodic ladder-like structure connecting tubulin PFs of the A- and B-tubules. The recently discovered microtubule inner proteins (MIPs) on the inside of the A- and B-tubules are more complex than previously thought. They are composed of alternating small and large subunits with periodicities of 16 and/or 48 nm. MIP3 forms arches connecting B-tubule PFs, contrary to an earlier report that MIP3 forms the IJ. Finally, the "beak" structures within the B-tubules of Chlamydomonas DMT1, DMT5, and DMT6 are clearly composed of a longitudinal band of proteins repeating with a periodicity of 16 nm. These findings, discussed in relation to genetic and biochemical data, provide a critical foundation for future work on the molecular assembly and stability of the axoneme, as well as its function in motility and sensory transduction.

Post-translational modifications of microtubules

Microtubules--polymers of tubulin--perform essential functions, including regulation of cell shape, intracellular transport and cell motility. How microtubules are adapted to perform multiple diverse functions is not well understood. Post-translational modifications of tubulin subunits diversify the outer and luminal surfaces of microtubules and provide a potential mechanism for their functional specialization. Recent identification of a number of tubulin-modifying and -demodifying enzymes has revealed key roles of tubulin modifications in the regulation of motors and factors that affect the organization and dynamics of microtubules.

Polyglutamylation: the GLU that makes microtubules sticky

The beating of cilia and flagella depends on microtubule sliding generated by dynein motors, but the interaction of these motors with their tracks is still under investigation. New evidence suggests that some dynein motors will not function properly unless their track has been modified by a specific post-translational modification.