The multifaceted effects of flavonoids on neuroplasticity

There has been a significant increase in the incidence of multiple neurodegenerative and terminal diseases in the human population with life expectancy increasing in the current times. This highlights the urgent need for a more comprehensive understanding of how different aspects of lifestyle, in particular diet, may affect neural functioning and consequently cognitive performance as well as in enhancing overall health. Flavonoids, found in a variety of fruits, vegetables, and derived beverages, provide a new avenue of research that shows a promising influence on different aspects of brain function. However, despite the promising evidence, most bioactive compounds lack strong clinical research efficacy. In the current scoping review, we highlight the effects of Flavonoids on cognition and neural plasticity across vertebrates and invertebrates with special emphasis on the studies conducted in the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, which has emerged to be a functionally dynamic model for studies on learning and memory. In conclusion, we suggest future research directions and discuss the social, cultural, and ethnic dependencies of bioactive compounds that influence how these compounds are used and accepted globally. Bridging the gap between preclinical and clinical studies about the effects of bioactive natural compounds on brain health will surely lead to lifestyle choices such as dietary Flavonoids being used complementarily rather than as replacements to classical drugs bringing about a healthier future.

Better together: isolation impedes memory formation for configural learning in Lymnaea stagnalis

Social interactions play an important role in learning and memory. There is great variability in the literature regarding the effects of social isolation on cognition. Here, we investigated how memory formation was affected when Lymnaea stagnalis, our model system, were socially isolated at three different time periods: before, during or after the configural learning training procedure. Each group of snails underwent configural learning where we recorded and compared their feeding behaviour before and after the pairing of an appetitive food stimulus with predator kairomones (i.e. the training procedure). We found that isolating snails before the training procedure had no effect on their learning and memory. However, when snails were isolated either during the training procedure or immediately after the training procedure, they no longer formed memory. These data provide further insight into how isolation impacts cognitive functioning in the context of higher-order learning.

Anxiety induces long-term memory forgetting in the crayfish

When two male crayfish encounter, agonistic bouts are initiated and a winner-loser relationship is established. Larger animals are more likely to win with their physical advantage, but they are frequently beaten by small dominant animals with previous winning experience. This winner effect remains for several days. In mammals, anxiety impairs learning and induces memory forgetting. In this study, dominant crayfish were exposed to electrical shocks two days after their first win, after which they were paired with large or small naive opponents the following day. Our results showed that electrical shock-applied dominant animals were beaten by large naive opponents, but overcame small naive opponents, suggesting that electrical shocks cause animals to forget their previous winner effect. Electrical shocks appeared to elicit serotonin-mediated anxiety since electrical shocks had no effect on mianserin-injected dominant animals. A 0.5 µM serotonin injection induced a caused anxiety-like reaction, while a 1.0 µM serotonin injection-induced no changes in posture and walking activity. For pairings between dominant and naive animals 1 day after serotonin injection, 0.5 µM serotonin caused similar forgetting of the winner effect, but 1.0 µM serotonin had no effect. Serotonin of low concentrations mediated anxiety and stimulated forgetting of the winner's memory.

In the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis), two stressors that individually enhance memory in combination block memory formation

Stress plays an important role in memory formation in the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis (Linnaeus, 1758)). Individual stressors have been shown to enhance or to perturb long-term memory (LTM) formation. However, when snails perceive a combination of two stressors, it is unclear the outcome with regards to LTM formation. Here we first show that when L. stagnalis are exposed individually to either a predator stressor (crayfish effluent (CE), which is a kairomone) or a thermal stressor (30 °C), LTM formation is enhanced. In their natural environment, L. stagnalis may experience temperatures approaching 30 °C and they may encounter crayfish at the same time. How such a combination of stressors alters adaptive behaviour is unknown. Here we show that when these two stressors are combined, LTM formation is blocked. Since boiling CE inactivates the kairomone, we used previously boiled CE that we combined with the thermal stressor and found that LTM formation is again enhanced. These data show that (i) it cannot accurately be predicted how a combination of stressors when combined interact to alter LTM formation and (ii) there is a difference between hot CE and room temperature CE.

Neuromodulatory pathways in learning and memory: Lessons from invertebrates

In an ever-changing environment, animals have to continuously adapt their behaviour. The ability to learn from experience is crucial for animals to increase their chances of survival. It is therefore not surprising that learning and memory evolved early in evolution and are mediated by conserved molecular mechanisms. A broad range of neuromodulators, in particular monoamines and neuropeptides, have been found to influence learning and memory, although our knowledge on their modulatory functions in learning circuits remains fragmentary. Many neuromodulatory systems are evolutionarily ancient and well-conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we highlight general principles and mechanistic insights concerning the actions of monoamines and neuropeptides in learning circuits that have emerged from invertebrate studies. Diverse neuromodulators have been shown to influence learning and memory in invertebrates, which can have divergent or convergent actions at different spatiotemporal scales. In addition, neuromodulators can regulate learning dependent on internal and external states, such as food and social context. The strong conservation of neuromodulatory systems, the extensive toolkit and the compact learning circuits in invertebrate models make these powerful systems to further deepen our understanding of neuromodulatory pathways involved in learning and memory.

Lymnaea stagnalis as model for translational neuroscience research: From pond to bench

The purpose of this review is to illustrate how a reductionistic, but sophisticated, approach based on the use of a simple model system such as the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L. stagnalis), might be useful to address fundamental questions in learning and memory. L. stagnalis, as a model, provides an interesting platform to investigate the dialog between the synapse and the nucleus and vice versa during memory and learning. More importantly, the "molecular actors" of the memory dialogue are well-conserved both across phylogenetic groups and learning paradigms, involving single- or multi-trials, aversion or reward, operant or classical conditioning. At the same time, this model could help to study how, where and when the memory dialog is impaired in stressful conditions and during aging and neurodegeneration in humans and thus offers new insights and targets in order to develop innovative therapies and technology for the treatment of a range of neurological and neurodegenerative disorders.

Strain transformation: Enhancement of invertebrate memory in a new rearing environment

Memory formation is influenced by a variety of factors, including the environmental conditions in which an organism is reared. Here, we studied the memory-forming ability of the lab-bred B-strain of Lymnaea following a change in their rearing environment from Brock University to the University of Calgary. We have previously demonstrated that this move enhances memory-forming ability and here we studied the magnitude of this phenotypic change. Once reared to adulthood at the University of Calgary, the B-strain animals were first tested to determine how many training sessions were required for the formation of long-term memory (LTM) to occur. Following this change in environment, the B-strain transformed into a ‘smart’ lab-bred strain requiring only a single 0.5 h session to form LTM. Next, we tested whether exposure to physiologically relevant stressors would block the formation of LTM in this ‘transformed’ B-strain, as this obstruction has previously been observed in ‘smart’ snails collected from the wild. Interestingly, neither stressor tested in this study perturbed memory formation in this ‘transformed’ lab-bred strain. Additionally, both the ‘smart’ memory phenotype, as well as the increased stress resiliency, were observed in the second generation of ‘transformed’ B-strain at both the juvenile and adult stages. This suggests that a change in rearing environment can contribute to the memory-forming ability of lab-bred Lymnaea.

Pharmacological effects of cannabinoids on learning and memory in Lymnaea

Cannabinoids are hypothesized to play an important role in modulating learning and memory formation. Here, we identified mRNAs expressed in Lymnaeastagnalis central nervous system that encode two G-protein-coupled receptors (Lymnaea CBr-like 1 and 2) that structurally resemble mammalian cannabinoid receptors (CBrs). We found that injection of a mammalian CBr agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN 55) into the snail before operant conditioning obstructed learning and memory formation. This effect of WIN 55 injection persisted for at least 4 days following its injection. A similar obstruction of learning and memory occurred when a severe traumatic stimulus was delivered to L. stagnalis In contrast, injection of a mammalian CBr antagonist AM 251 enhanced long-term memory formation in snails and reduced the duration of the effects of the severe traumatic stressor on learning and memory. Neither WIN 55 nor AM 251 altered normal homeostatic aerial respiratory behaviour elicited in hypoxic conditions. Our results suggest that putative cannabinoid receptors mediate stressful stimuli that alter learning and memory formation in Lymnaea This is also the first demonstration that putative CBrs are present in Lymnaea and play a key role in learning and memory formation.

Green tea and cocoa enhance cognition in Lymnaea

A flavonoid, (-)-epicatechi (Epi), enhances long-term memory (LTM) formation in Lymnaea and reverses memory obstruction caused by stress. Many foods contain substantial amounts of Epi, (e.g. green tea and cocoa). In humans eating such foods may directly or indirectly enhance cognition. We directly test whether operant conditioning training Lymnaea in these natural foods result in the same effects as training snails in pure Epi. We found that exposure to products containing high concentrations of Epi (e.g. green tea and cocoa) during training enhanced memory formation and could even reverse a learning and memory deficit brought about by stress. Epi can be photo-inactivated by exposure to ultraviolet light. We found that following photo-inactivation of Epi, memory enhancement did not occur. Photo-inactivation of foods containing Epi (e,g. green tea) blocked their ability to enhance LTM. Our data are thus consistent with the hypothesis that dietary sources of Epi can have positive benefits on cognitive ability and be able to reverse memory aversive states.

Combining Factors That Individually Enhance Memory in Lymnaea

When applied individually, thermal stress (1 hour at 30 °C) and (-)epicatechin (a flavonol found in green tea, e.g.) each enhance long-term memory formation following operant conditioning of Lymnaea aerial respiratory behavior. Snails demonstrate enhanced long-term memory formation when trained in epicatechin-treated pond water or when placed in 30 °C pond water for 1 hour, 1 hour prior to training in pond water. We ask here whether the combined application of epicatechin + thermal stress enhances long-term memory retention length beyond the maximal lengths of the individual factors alone. We report that the applied combination of epicatechin + thermal stress has a synergistic memory-enhancing effect; that is, when the two are applied in combination, memory persists longer than when either is applied alone. We then ask whether quercetin, a heat shock protein blocker, will affect the memory enhancement produced by the combined treatment of thermal stress and epicatechin. We report that quercetin does not decrease the memory enhancement of epicatechin, but it does decrease the memory enhancement by thermal stress; and it also decreases the memory persistence of snails exposed to both treatments in combination.

The effect of rearing environment on memory formation

Lymnaea stagnalis is a well-studied model system for determining how changes in the environment influence associative learning and memory formation. For example, some wild strains of Lymnaea, collected from separate geographic locations show superior memory-forming abilities compared to others. Here, we have studied memory formation in two laboratory-bred Lymnaea strains, derived from the same original population in The Netherlands. The two strains were reared in two different laboratories at the University of Calgary (C-strain) and at Brock University (B-strain) for many years and were found to differ in their memory-forming ability. Specifically, the C-strain required only two training sessions to form long-term memory (LTM) whereas the B-strain required four sessions to form LTM. Additionally, the LTM formed by the B-strain persisted for a shorter amount of time than the memory formed by the C-strain. Thus, despite being derived from the same original population, the C- and B-strains have developed different memory-forming abilities. Next, we raised the two strains from embryos ‘Away’ from home (i.e. in the other laboratory) over two generations and assessed their memory-forming abilities. The B-strain reared and maintained at the University of Calgary demonstrated improved memory-forming ability within a single generation, while the C-strain reared at Brock University retained their normal LTM forming ability across two subsequent generations. This suggests that local environmental factors may contribute to the behavioural divergence observed between these two laboratory-bred strains.

Extending the duration of long-term memories: Interactions between environmental darkness and retinoid signaling

Retinoid signaling plays an important role in hippocampal-dependent vertebrate memories. However, we have previously demonstrated that retinoids are also involved in the formation of long-term implicit memory following operant conditioning of the invertebrate mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis. Furthermore, we have discovered an interaction between environmental light/dark conditions and retinoid signaling and the ability of both to convert intermediate-term memory into long-term memory. In this study, we extend these findings to show that retinoid receptor agonists and environmental darkness can both also extend the duration of long-term memory. Interestingly, exposure to constant environmental darkness significantly increased the expression of retinoid receptors in the adult central nervous system, as well as induced specific changes in a key neuron mediating the conditioned behaviour. These studies not only shed more light on how retinoids influence memory formation, but also further link environmental light conditions to the retinoid signaling pathway.

Environmental Adaptation, Phenotypic Plasticity, and Associative Learning in Insects: The Desert Locust as a Case Study

The ability to learn and store information should be adapted to the environment in which animals operate to confer a selective advantage. Yet the relationship between learning, memory, and the environment is poorly understood, and further complicated by phenotypic plasticity caused by the very environment in which learning and memory need to operate. Many insect species show polyphenism, an extreme form of phenotypic plasticity, allowing them to occupy distinct environments by producing two or more alternative phenotypes. Yet how the learning and memories capabilities of these alternative phenotypes are adapted to their specific environments remains unknown for most polyphenic insect species. The desert locust can exist as one of two extreme phenotypes or phases, solitarious and gregarious. Recent studies of associative food-odor learning in this locust have shown that aversive but not appetitive learning differs between phases. Furthermore, switching from the solitarious to the gregarious phase (gregarization) prevents locusts acquiring new learned aversions, enabling them to convert an aversive memory formed in the solitarious phase to an appetitive one in the gregarious phase. This conversion provides a neuroecological mechanism that matches key changes in the behavioral environments of the two phases. These findings emphasize the importance of understanding the neural mechanisms that generate ecologically relevant behaviors and the interactions between different forms of behavioral plasticity.

A flavanoid component of chocolate quickly reverses an imposed memory deficit

The ability to remember is influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors, such as stress and diet. A flavanol contained in chocolate, epicatechin (Epi), has been shown to enhance long-term memory (LTM) formation in Lymnaea. Combining two stressors (low-calcium pond water and crowding) blocks learning and all forms of memory; that is, this combination of environmentally relevant stressors creates a memory-unfriendly state. We tested the hypothesis that Epi will immediately reverse the memory-unfriendly state, i.e. that snails in the memory-deficit state when trained in Epi will immediately become competent to learn and form memory. We found that Epi not only reverses the memory-deficit state but also further enhances LTM formation. Thus, a naturally occurring bioactive plant compound can overcome a memory-unfriendly state. This supports the idea that bioactive substances may mitigate memory-making deficits that, for example, occur with ageing.

Sequential exposure to a combination of stressors blocks memory reconsolidation in Lymnaea

Stress alters the formation of long-term memory (LTM) in Lymnaea. When snails are exposed to more than one stressor, however, how the memory is altered becomes complicated. Here, we investigated how multiple stressors applied in a specific pattern affect an aspect of memory not often studied in regards to stress - reconsolidation. We hypothesized that the application of a sequence of stressors would block the reconsolidation process. Reconsolidation occurs following activation of a previously formed memory. Sequential crowding and handling were used as the stressors to block reconsolidation. When the two stressors were sequentially presented immediately following memory activation, reconsolidation was blocked. However, if the sequential presentation of the stressors was delayed for 1 h after memory activation, reconsolidation was not blocked. That is, LTM was observed. Finally, presentation of either stressor alone did not block reconsolidation. Thus, stressors can block reconsolidation, which may be preferable to pharmacological manipulations.

Environmentally relevant stressors alter memory formation in the pond snail Lymnaea

Stress alters adaptive behaviours such as learning and memory. Stressors can either enhance or diminish learning, memory formation and/or memory recall. We focus attention here on how environmentally relevant stressors alter learning, memory and forgetting in the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. Operant conditioning of aerial respiration causes associative learning that may lead to long-term memory (LTM) formation. However, individual ecologically relevant stressors, combinations of stressors, and bio-active substances can alter whether or not learning occurs or memory forms. While the behavioural memory phenotype may be similar as a result of exposure to different stressors, how each stressor alters memory formation may occur differently. In addition, when a combination of stressors are presented it is difficult to predict ahead of time what the outcome will be regarding memory formation. Thus, how combinations of stressors act is an emergent property of how the snail perceives the stressors.

A flavonol, epicatechin, reverses the suppressive effects of a stressor on LTM formation

Learning and subsequent memory formation are influenced by both environmental and lifestyle factors, such as stress and diet. Epicatechin, a plant flavonol found in cocoa, red wine, and green tea enhances long term memory formation (LTM) in Lymnaea; while an ecologically relevant stressor, low calcium pond water, suppress LTM formation. We tested the hypothesis that epicatechin overcomes the suppressive effects of the stressor on LTM formation in the continued presence of the stressor. Snails trained in low calcium pond water exhibit learning but not LTM. Epicatechin (15 mg/L) in control pond water enhances LTM formation. When epicatechin was added to the low calcium pond water an enhanced LTM similar to that seen in control pond water was observed. Thus, a naturally occurring bioactive plant compound was able to overcome the suppressive effects of an ecologically relevant stressor on LTM formation.

Combining stressors that individually impede long-term memory blocks all memory processes

The effects of stress on memory are typically assessed individually; however, in reality different stressors are often experienced simultaneously. Here we determined the effect that two environmentally relevant stressors, crowding and low calcium availability, have on memory and neural activity following operant conditioning of aerial respiration in the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. We measured aerial breathing behaviour and activity of a neuron necessary for memory formation, right pedal dorsal 1 (RPeD1), in the central pattern generator (CPG) that drives aerial respiration in untrained animals, and assessed how these traits changed following training. In naïve animals both crowding and combined stressors significantly depressed burst activity in RPeD1 which correlated with a depression in aerial breathing behaviour, whereas low calcium availability had no effect on RPeD1 activity. Following training, changes in burst activity in RPeD1 correlated with behavioural changes, decreasing relative to their naïve state at 3 h and 24 h in control conditions when both intermediate-term memory (ITM: 3 h) and long-term memory (LTM: 24 h) are formed, at 3 h but not 24 h when exposed to individual stressors when only ITM is formed, and did not change in combined stressors (i.e. when no memory is formed). Additionally, we also found that Lymnaea formed short-term memory (STM: 10 min) in the presence of individual stressors or under control conditions, but failed to do so in the presence of combined stressors. Our data demonstrate that by combining stressors that individually block LTM only we can block all memory processes. Therefore the effects of two stressors with similar individual affects on memory phenotype may be additive when experienced in combination.

Behavioural and network plasticity following conditioning of the aerial respiratory response of a pulmonate mollusc

Most molluscs perform respiration using gills, but the pulmonate molluscs have developed a primitive lung with which they perform pulmonary respiration. The flow of air into this lung occurs through an opening called the pneumostome, and pulmonate molluscs travel to the surface of the water to obtain oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere. The aerial respiratory behaviour of the pulmonate mollusc, the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis (L., 1758)), has been well studied, and a three-neuron central pattern generator (CPG) controlling this rhythmic behaviour has been identified. The aerial respiratory behaviour of L. stagnalis can be operantly conditioned and plasticity within the CPG has been associated with the conditioned response. In this review, we describe both the aerial respiratory behaviour and the underlying neuronal network of this pulmonate mollusc, and then discuss both the behavioural and network plasticity that results from the conditioning of this behaviour.

Social snails: the effect of social isolation on cognition is dependent on environmental context

Social isolation is often considered to have negative effects on cognitive function in a wide range of species. Here we assess how environmental context alters the effect of isolation on long-term memory formation (24 h) in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. We operantly trained snails to reduce aerial respiration in hypoxia following exposure to one of three social conditions: (1) maintained and trained in groups; (2) maintained in groups, trained in isolation; or (3) maintained and trained in isolation. In addition, snails also experienced four stress exposure levels: control, exposure to low calcium availability, predator kairomone exposure during training or a combination of low calcium and predator kairomones. Snails isolated during training alone demonstrated no difference in memory formation compared with the snails trained in groups. Maintaining snails in social isolation for 8 days prior to training had a neutral effect on memory in control conditions or in the presence of predator kairomones alone. However, social isolation enhanced long-term memory formation in snails exposed to low calcium conditions, a stress that blocks memory formation in snails maintained in groups. Conversely, when exposed to low calcium and predator kairomones combined, grouped snails normally demonstrate long-term memory, but following maintenance in isolation long-term memory was blocked. Therefore, the effect of social isolation on cognitive function is highly dependent on the environmental context in which it is experienced.

How stress alters memory in 'smart' snails

Cognitive ability varies within species, but whether this variation alters the manner in which memory formation is affected by environmental stress is unclear. The great pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, is commonly used as model species in studies of learning and memory. The majority of those studies used a single laboratory strain (i.e. the Dutch strain) originating from a wild population in the Netherlands. However, our recent work has identified natural populations that demonstrate significantly enhanced long-term memory (LTM) formation relative to the Dutch strain following operant conditioning of aerial respiratory behaviour. Here we assess how two populations with enhanced memory formation (i.e. ‘smart’ snails), one from Canada (Trans Canada 1: TC1) and one from the U.K. (Chilton Moor: CM) respond to ecologically relevant stressors. In control conditions the Dutch strain forms memory lasting 1–3 h following a single 0.5 h training session in our standard calcium pond water (80 mg/l [Ca²⁺]), whereas the TC1 and CM populations formed LTM lasting 5+ days following this training regime. Exposure to low environmental calcium pond water (20 mg/l [Ca²⁺]), which blocks LTM in the Dutch strain, reduced LTM retention to 24 h in the TC1 and CM populations. Crowding (20 snails in 100 ml) immediately prior to training blocks LTM in the Dutch strain, and also did so in TC1 and CM populations. Therefore, snails with enhanced cognitive ability respond to these ecologically relevant stressors in a similar manner to the Dutch strain, but are more robust at forming LTM in a low calcium environment. Despite the two populations (CM and TC1) originating from different continents, LTM formation was indistinguishable in both control and stressed conditions. This indicates that the underlying mechanisms controlling cognitive differences among populations may be highly conserved in L. stagnalis.

What's hot: the enhancing effects of thermal stress on long-term memory formation in Lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, naturally inhabits slow flowing, shallow and stagnant environments in the northern temperate zone. Consequently, it will experience wide temperature fluctuations dependent on prevailing weather conditions. We hypothesize that periods of warming act as a thermal stressor to alter memory formation. Snails were exposed to an acute 1h period of 30°C pond water and we determined how memory formation following operant conditioning of aerial respiration was affected. In snails used here (the Dutch strain), a single 0.5h training session (TS) results in intermediate-term (3h) but not long-term memory (LTM). Applying the thermal stressor during training caused memory enhancement (i.e. LTM lasting 24 h). However, the breathing rate also increased in warm water, which might explain the enhanced memory. Therefore, we applied the thermal stressor (1h at 30°C) up to 4h before or 1h after training. This did not alter baseline breathing rate during the period when snails would experience training. However, the thermal stressor weather experienced prior to or following the single TS, resulted in an enhanced memory that persisted up to 48h (i.e. LTM). We conclude that memory enhancement is due to the stress associated with the thermal stimulus.

Sensory mediation of memory blocking stressors in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis

The great pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, is commonly used as a model species to study how stress affects the ability to form long-term memory (LTM); however, we still have little information about how the snail senses stressful stimuli. The osphradium is an external sensory organ that demonstrates electrophysiological responses to a variety of external chemical stimuli. We examined the role, if any, played by the osphradium in sensing two environmental stressors, crowding and low environmental calcium, both known to block LTM in intact animals. We severed the osphradial nerve, blocking external sensory input from this organ to the central nervous system, and then exposed the snails to low environmental calcium or crowding stress to assess whether these stressors continued to block LTM formation. When exposed to low environmental calcium, snails with their osphradial nerve severed responded as if they were maintained in our standard calcium environment. That is, they did not respond to low calcium as a stressor blocking LTM; therefore, the osphradium plays a crucial role in mediating how snails respond to this stressor. However, following crowding, LTM formation was blocked in both control groups and snails that had the osphradial nerve severed, indicating that sensory information from the osphradium is not required to sense crowded conditions. Together these data show that two stressors that result in the same behavioural phenotype, blocking LTM formation, do so via two distinct sensory pathways.

Low environmental calcium blocks long-term memory formation in a freshwater pulmonate snail

The freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L.) is considered a calciphile and exhibits reduced growth and survival in environments containing less than 20 mg/l environmental calcium. Although it has no apparent effect on survival at 20 mg/l, reducing environmental calcium increases metabolic demand, and as such we consider that this level of calcium acts as a stressor on the snail. We exposed snails to acute periods of low environmental calcium and tested their ability to form intermediate-term memory (ITM) and long-term memory (LTM) following one trial operant conditioning (1TT) to reduce aerial respiratory activity in hypoxic conditions. We also assessed whether there were changes in the electrophysiological properties of a single neuron, right pedal dorsal 1 (RPeD1), which has been demonstrated to be necessary for LTM formation. Following training in high (80 mg/l) environmental calcium, L. stagnalis formed ITM and LTM lasting 24 h and demonstrated a significant reduction in all activity measured from RPeD1; however when snails were exposed to low (20 mg/l) environmental calcium they were able to form ITM but not LTM. Although no behavioral LTM was formed, a partial reduction in RPeD1 activtiy measured 24 h after training was observed, indicating a residual effect of training. The strong effect that environmental calcium concentration had on physiology and behavior in response to training to reduce aerial respiration in L. stagnalis suggests that it is an element of gastropod husbandry that needs to be carefully considered when studying other traits. This study also indicates that L. stagnalis found naturally in low calcium environments may be less able to adapt to novel stressors than populations found in harder waters.

The role of serotonin in the enhancement of long-term memory resulting from predator detection in Lymnaea

Serotonergic systems play important roles in modulating stress-induced arousal and vigilance behaviours. The pond snail, Lymnaea, shows multiple defensive vigilance behaviours in response to the stress associated with predator detection. Predator detection elicited by crayfish effluent (CE), increases the time to re-emerge from the shell and enhances the shadow withdrawal response. More importantly, in Lymnaea, CE enhances the ability to form long-term memory (LTM). We investigated the role of the serotonergic system in these anti-predator responses in Lymnaea. Using a serotonin-receptor antagonist, mianserin, we found that two defensive vigilance behaviours (e.g. increasing the time to re-emerge from their shell and shadow response) elicited by CE were not observed when the serotonergic system was disrupted. Also, methysergide, another serotonin antagonist, blocked the enhanced LTM formation after training in CE. Importantly, mianserin did not alter LTM formation in pond water (PW). These data suggest that a serotonergic system is activated only when Lymnaea detect a predator. When snails were trained in CE using a training procedure that in PW produces a 24-h LTM, a more persistent form of LTM (5 days) occurred. This more persistent form of LTM was abolished after mianserin treatment. Increasing 5-HT levels in the snail by the injection of 5-HT was also associated with enhanced LTM formation. Lastly, we tested whether the osphradium is implicated in CE detection and subsequent enhanced formation of LTM. Cutting the osphradial nerve to the CNS resulted in the loss of the ability to form enhanced LTM in CE. Together, these findings support the hypothesis that the serotonergic system plays a key role in modulating the predator-induced stress responses in Lymnaea.

Differences in LTM-forming capability between geographically different strains of Alberta Lymnaea stagnalis are maintained whether they are trained in the lab or in the wild

We found strain differences in the ability of wild Alberta Lymnaea stagnalis to form long-term memory (LTM) following operant conditioning when L. stagnalis were collected from the wild and trained in the laboratory. Lymnaea stagnalis obtained from the Belly River watershed had an enhanced ability to form LTM compared with those from an isolated pond (referred to as Jackson snails). We therefore asked whether the differences in cognitive ability were an epiphenomenon as a result of training in the laboratory. To answer this question we trained each specific strain (Belly and Jackson) in both the laboratory and the field (i.e. in their home pond and in the pond where the other strain resided - referred to as the visitor pond). We found that within each strain there was no difference in the LTM phenotype whether they were trained in the lab or in either their home or visitor pond. That is, the strain differences in the ability to form LTM were still present. Interestingly, we found no strain differences in the ability to learn or the ability to form intermediate-term memory (ITM).

A clash of stressors and LTM formation

Stress alters long-term memory formation sometimes enhancing its formation whilst at other times blocking it. It is unclear what the causal mechanisms are that allow stress to either enhance or suppress memory. We have made use of a relatively simple invertebrate model system to attempt to explore the causal mechanisms of how stress alters memory. Here we explore the consequences of presenting to the organism two different ecologically relevant stressors: detection of a predator and crowding. We find that the suppressive effect on memory formation elicited by crowding is more powerful than is the enhancing effect on predator-detection. That is, when the two stressors are experienced by the snail, long- term memory formation is suppressed.