Ginsenoside modified lipid-coated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets: A novel approach to reduce complement protein adsorption and prolong in vivo circulation

Lipid-coated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (lp-NDs) hold great promise in bio-medicine as vehicles for drug delivery, molecular imaging and vaccine agents. However, their clinical utility is restricted by limited targeted accumulation, attributed to the innate immune system (IIS), which acts as the initial defense mechanism in humans. This study aimed to optimize lp-ND formulations to minimize non-specific clearance by the IIS. Ginsenosides (Gs), the principal components of Panax ginseng, possessing complement inhibition ability, structural similarity to cholesterol, and comparable fat solubility to phospholipids, were used as promising candidate IIS inhibitors. Two different types of ginsenoside-based lp-NDs (Gs lp-NDs) were created, and their efficacy in reducing IIS recognition was examined. The Gs lp-NDs were observed to inhibit the adsorption of C3 in the protein corona (PC) and the generation of SC5b-9. Adding Gs to lp-NDs reduced complement adsorption and phagocytosis, resulting in a longer blood circulation time in vivo compared to lp-NDs that did not contain Gs. These results suggest that Gs can act as anti-complement and anti-phagocytosis adjuvants, potentially reducing non-specific clearance by the IIS and improving lifespan.

Ameliorative effects of ginsenosides on myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

and ethnopharmacological relevance: As the major side effect of radiotherapy or chemotherapy, myelosuppression usually leads to anemia, hemorrhage, immunosuppression, and even fatal infections, which may discontinue the process of cancer treatment. As a result, more and more attention is paid to the treatment of myelosuppression. Ginseng, root of Panax ginseng Meyer (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey), is considered as the king of herbs in the Orient, particularly in China, Korea and Japan. Ginsenosides, the most important active ingredients of ginseng, have been shown to have a variety of therapeutic effects, such as neuroprotective, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties. Considering that ginsenosides are closely associated with the pathogenesis of myelosuppression, researchers have carried out a few experiments on ginsenosides to attenuate myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy in recent years.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To summarize previous studies about the effects of ginsenosides on alleviating myelosuppression and the mechanisms of action.

METHODS

Literatures in this review were searched in PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Web of Science, and ScienceDirect.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides play an important role in relieving myelosuppression predominantly by restoring hematopoiesis and immunity.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenosides might be potential candidates for the treatment of myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Anti-Cancer Effects of Panax ginseng Berry Polysaccharides via Activation of Immune-Related Cells

Panax ginseng has long been used as natural medicine and health food all over the world. Cancer is a major cause of death worldwide and its prognosis likely depends on the immune system during tumor treatment. In this study, ginseng berry polysaccharides were evaluated for their immunostimulant and anti-cancer effects. Ginseng berry polysaccharide portion (GBPP) was used to investigate its effects on anti-complementary activity, peritoneal macrophage activation, and natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity. Moreover, both intravenous (i.v.) and oral administration of GBPP prior to B16-BL6 melanoma implantation in mice was evaluated. GBPP significantly increased the anti-complementary activity and cytokine production including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, dose-dependently. Splenocytes obtained after i.v. administration of GBPP showed cytolytic activity in Yac-1 cells in proportion to the E/T ratio. In addition, GBPP enhanced the production of interferon (IFN)-γ and granzyme B of NK cells. For the experimental lung cancer, compared with control mice, GBPP delivered by i.v. suppressed cancer by 48% at 100 μg/mouse, while a 37% reduction was achieved by oral administration. Deficient of NK cells in animal model demonstrated that the anti-cancer effect of GBPP was through NK cell activation. Results of this study suggest that ginseng berry polysaccharides, owing to their modulation of the immune response, can be a potential curative applicant for the prevention and treatment of tumors.

Studies of the effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Re and Rk3 on myelosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide

Background

Ginsenoside Re (Re) is one of the major components of Panax ginseng Meyer. Ginsenoside Rk₃ (Rk₃) is a secondary metabolite of Re. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare the effects and underlying mechanisms of Re and Rk₃ on cyclophosphamide-induced myelosuppression.

Methods

The mice myelosuppression model was established by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of cyclophosphamide. Peripheral blood cells, bone marrow nucleated cells, and colony yield of hematopoietic progenitor cells in vitro were counted. The levels of erythropoietin, thrombopoietin, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor in plasma were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Bone marrow cell cycle was performed by flow cytometry. The expression of apoptotic protein bcl-2, bax, and caspase-3 was detected by Western blotting.

Results

Both Re and Rk₃ could improve peripheral blood cells, bone marrow nucleated cell counts, thymus index, and spleen index. Furthermore, they could enhance the yield of colonies cultured in vitro and make the levels of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, erythropoietin, and thrombopoietin normal, reduce the ratio of G₀/G₁ phase cells, and increase the proliferation index. Finally, Re and Rk₃ could upregulate the expression of bcl-2, whereas they could downregulate the expression of bax and caspase-3.

Conclusion

Re and Rk₃ could improve the hematopoietic function of myelosuppressed mice. The effect of Rk₃ was superior to that of Re at any dose. Regulating the levels of cytokines, promoting cells enter the normal cell cycle, regulating the balance of bcl-2/bax, and inhibiting the expression of caspase-3 may be the effects of Re and Rk₃ on myelosuppression.

Anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rk3 on non-small cell lung cancer cells: in vitro and in vivo

Ginsenoside Rk3 (Rk3) is present in the roots of processed Panax notoginseng herbs and it exerts anti-platelet aggregation, pro-immunogenic and cardioprotective effects. However, little is known regarding the anticancer activities of this compound, especially in lung cancer. This study was designed to investigate the anticancer effects of Rk3 on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and in an H460 xenograft tumor model. Our results showed that Rk3 reduced cell viability, inhibited both cell proliferation and colony formation, and induced G1 phase cell cycle arrest by downregulating the expression of cyclin D1 and CDK4 and upregulating the expression of P21. Rk3 also induced apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner in H460 and A549 cells by Annexin V/PI staining, TUNEL assay and JC-1 staining, resulting in a change in the nuclear morphology. Moreover, Rk3 induced the activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3, promoted changes in mitochondrial membrane potential, decreased the expression of Bcl-2, increased the expression of Bax, and caused the release of cytochrome c, which indicated that the apoptosis-inducing effects of Rk3 were triggered via death receptor-mediated mitochondria-dependent pathways. Furthermore, Rk3 significantly inhibited the growth of H460 xenograft tumors without an obvious effect on the body weight of the treated mice. Histological analysis indicated that Rk3 inhibited tumor growth by altering the proliferation and morphology of tumor cells. In addition, we confirmed that Rk3 inhibited angiogenesis via CD34 staining and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay in vivo. Taken together, our findings revealed not only the anticancer effect of Rk3 on NSCLC cells but also a new promising therapeutic agent for human NSCLC.

The active glycosides from Urtica fissa rhizome decoction

Using bioassay guided fractionation, 16 glycosides, including two new compounds (1 and 2), were isolated from the anticomplement and anti-inflammatory portion of an Urtica fissa rhizome decoction used for arthritis. Several compounds were found to possess significant anticomplement and anti-inflammatory activities. This study revealed that glycosides played an important role in the therapeutic effects of Urtica fissa rhizome.

Intestinal bacterial metabolism and anti-complement activities of three major components of the seeds of Entada phaseoloides

The present study aimed to investigate the metabolism of Entadae Semen by human fecal bacteria to clarify the relationship between its pharmacological activities and intestinal metabolism. Three major components (phaseoloidin, entadamide A-β-D-glucopyranoside and entadamide A) were isolated and identified from Entadae Semen and then incubated with human fecal microflora in vitro to investigate the metabolic processes. The metabolites were analyzed with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The anti-complement activities of the three components and their metabolites produced by human fecal microflora were evaluated in vitro using a hemolysis assay. Phaseoloidin and entadamide A-β-D-glucopyranoside were metabolized into their respective aglycones during the incubation process, which enhanced their anti-complement effects. These results indicated that the presence of intestinal bacteria likely plays an important role and that the pharmacological effects of Entadae Semen may be dependent on intestinal bacterial metabolism.

Anticarcinogenic effects of products of heat-processed ginsenoside Re, a major constituent of ginseng berry, on human gastric cancer cells

Ginsenoside Re is a triol type triterpene glycoside and is abundantly present in ginseng berry. In the present study, we verified that ginsenoside Re can be transformed into less-polar ginsenosides, namely, Rg2, Rg6, and F4, by heat-processing. The products of heat-processed ginsenoside Re inhibited phosphorylation of CDK2 at Thr160 by upregulation of p21 level, resulting in S phase arrest. The products of heat-processed ginsenoside Re also activated caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3, followed by cleavage of PARP, a substrate of caspase-3, in a dose-dependent manner. Concurrently, alteration of mitochondrial factors such as Bcl-2 and Bax was also observed. Moreover, pretreatment with Z-VAD-fmk abrogated caspase-8, -9, and -3 activations by the products of heat-processed ginsenoside Re. We further confirmed that the anticancer effects of the products of heat-processed ginsenoside Re in AGS cells are mainly mediated via generation of less-polar ginsenosides Rg6 and F4.

Inhibition of TNF-α-Mediated NF-κB Transcriptional Activity by Dammarane-Type Ginsenosides from Steamed Flower Buds of Panax ginseng in HepG2 and SK-Hep1 Cells

Panax ginseng is a medicinal herb that is used worldwide. Its medicinal effects are primarily attributable to ginsenosides located in the root, leaf, seed, and flower. The flower buds of Panax ginseng (FBPG) are rich in various bioactive ginsenosides, which exert immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of 18 ginsenosides isolated from steamed FBPG on the transcriptional activity of NF-κB and the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-stimulated target genes in liver-derived cell lines. Noticeably, the ginsenosides Rk₃ and Rs₄ exerted the strongest activity, inhibiting NF-κB in a dose-dependent manner. SF and Rg₆ also showed moderately inhibitory effects. Furthermore, these four compounds inhibited the TNF-α-induced expression of IL8, CXCL1, iNOS, and ICAM1 genes. Consequently, ginsenosides purified from steamed FBPG have therapeutic potential in TNF-α-mediated diseases such as chronic hepatic inflammation.

Ginsenoside RK3 Prevents Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Induced Apoptosis in H9c2 Cardiomyocytes via AKT and MAPK Pathway

Reperfusion therapy is widely utilized for acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but further injury induced by rapidly initiating reperfusion of the heart is often encountered in clinical practice. Ginsenoside RK3 (RK3) is reportedly present in the processed Radix notoginseng that is often used as a major ingredient of the compound preparation for ischemic heart diseases. This study aimed to investigate the possible protective effect of RK3 against hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) induced H9c2 cardiomyocytes damage and its underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that RK3 pretreatment caused increased cell viability and decreased levels of LDH leakage compared with the H/R group. Moreover, RK3 pretreatment inhibited cell apoptosis, as evidenced by decreased caspase-3 activity, TUNEL-positive cells, and Bax expression, as well as increased Bcl-2 level. Further mechanism investigation revealed that RK3 prevented H9c2 cardiomyocytes injury and apoptosis induced by H/R via AKT/Nrf-2/HO-1 and MAPK pathways. These observations indicate that RK3 has the potential to exert cardioprotective effects against H/R injury, which might be of great importance to clinical efficacy for AMI treatment.

Complement activation and inhibition in wound healing

Complement activation is needed to restore tissue injury; however, inappropriate activation of complement, as seen in chronic wounds can cause cell death and enhance inflammation, thus contributing to further injury and impaired wound healing. Therefore, attenuation of complement activation by specific inhibitors is considered as an innovative wound care strategy. Currently, the effects of several complement inhibitors, for example, the C3 inhibitor compstatin and several C1 and C5 inhibitors, are under investigation in patients with complement-mediated diseases. Although (pre)clinical research into the effects of these complement inhibitors on wound healing is limited, available data indicate that reduction of complement activation can improve wound healing. Moreover, medicine may take advantage of safe and effective agents that are produced by various microorganisms, symbionts, for example, medicinal maggots, and plants to attenuate complement activation. To conclude, for the development of new wound care strategies, (pre)clinical studies into the roles of complement and the effects of application of complement inhibitors in wound healing are required.

Quantification of ginsenosides Rh4 and Rk3 in rat plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: application to a pre-clinical pharmacokinetic study

Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) and ginsenoside Rk3 (Rk3) are two active substances isolated from the processed Panax species. To further explore their potential medicinal application, a reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method (LC/MS/MS) was developed and validated for the quantification of Rh4 and Rk3 in rat plasma. Multiple ion monitoring and multiple reaction monitoring experiments were performed in negative ionization mode. This LC/MS/MS method had good selectivity, sensitivity (lower limit of quantification = 10 ng/mL), precision (intra- and inter-day relative standard deviation ≤ 10.1) and accuracy (analytical recovery within 100 ± 10%). The pharmacokinetic profiles of Rh4 and Rk3 were subsequently assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats. Similar to many other ginsenosides, the oral bioavailability of Rh4 and Rk3 was unfavorable, and Rh4 and Rk3 did not have any measurable plasma exposure after oral administration (20 mg/kg). Fortunately, upon intravenous administration (5 mg/kg), both Rh4 and Rk3 possessed abundant plasma exposure, moderate clearance (Cl = 50.2 ± 7.7 and 23.8 ± 1.4 mL·min(-1)·kg(-1), respectively) and terminal elimination half-life (t(1/2 λZ) = 157.2 ± 65.2 and 99.5 ± 37.8 min, respectively). As Rh4 and Rk3 displayed favorable intravenous pharmacokinetic profiles, further exploration on their medicinal application is warranted.