Ginsenoside Rg3 bile salt-phosphatidylcholine-based mixed micelles: design, characterization, and evaluation

Pharmacological mechanisms and drug delivery systems of Ginsenoside Rg3: a comprehensive review

Ginsenoside Rg3, as one of the major active components of Panax ginseng, exhibits significant anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, wound healing and immunomodulatory pharmacological effects and has been developed as an adjuvant therapy in clinical practice. However, its poor water solubility and low permeability result in limited bioavailability, restricting its clinical application. This review systematically summarizes the pharmacological mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg3, including its anti-tumor effects through multiple signaling pathways that inhibit cancer cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and suppress tumor angiogenesis; anti-inflammatory properties via the inhibition of NF-κB and related factors; antioxidant effects by increasing antioxidant enzyme levels and regulating the Nrf2 pathway; antidiabetic effects via the promotion of insulin secretion by inhibiting the MAPK pathway; hepatoprotective effects via the attenuation of hepatic inflammation through suppressing NF-κB phosphorylation; wound-healing-promoting effects via modulating the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway, and immunomodulatory activities through immune cell regulation and inhibition of PD-L1 glycosylation. Additionally, this review discusses the pharmacokinetic properties of Rg3, such as rapid oral absorption but low plasma concentration and bioavailability. Furthermore, this review highlights various drug delivery systems, including liposomes, solid dispersions, cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, microspheres, electrospun nanofiber membranes, hydrogels, nanoparticles, micelles, and microneedles, which have been developed to improve its physicochemical properties and enhance its therapeutic efficacy. By systematically summarizing the pharmacological mechanisms and formulation optimization strategies of Rg3, this review provides theoretical insights and technical support for future research and clinical translation.

Inhibition of Angiogenesis and Effect on Inflammatory Bowel Disease of Ginsenoside Rg3-Loaded Thermosensitive Hydrogel

Background: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, involves angiogenesis as a key pathogenic mechanism. Ginsenoside Rg3, derived from the traditional Chinese herb ginseng, is recognized for its anti-angiogenic properties but is limited by low oral bioavailability. This necessitates the development of an alternative delivery system to improve its therapeutic effectiveness. Methods: Pluronic F-127 (F127) and Pluronic F-68 (F68) were used to construct Rg3-loaded thermosensitive hydrogel Gel-Rg3. Meanwhile, a series of physicochemical properties were determined. Then the safety and pharmacological activity of Gel-Rg3 were evaluated in vitro and in vivo using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and colitis mouse model, in order to initially validate the potential of Gel-Rg3 for the treatment of IBD. Results: We engineered a rectally administrable, thermosensitive Gel-Rg3 hydrogel using F127 and F68, which forms at body temperature, enhancing Rg3's intestinal retention and slowly releasing the drug. In vitro, Gel-Rg3 demonstrated superior anti-angiogenic activity by inhibiting HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation. It also proved safer and better suited for IBD's delicate intestinal environment than unformulated Rg3. In vivo assessments confirmed increased intestinal adhesion and anti-angiogenic efficacy. Conclusions: The Gel-Rg3 hydrogel shows promise for IBD therapy by effectively inhibiting angiogenesis via rectal delivery, overcoming Rg3's bioavailability limitations with improved safety and efficacy. This study provides new inspiration and data support for the design of treatment strategies for IBD.

Enhancing the Biopharmacological Characteristics of Asperosaponin VI: Unveiling Dynamic Self-Assembly Phase Transitions in the Gastrointestinal Environment

PURPOSE

Asperosaponin VI (ASP VI) as an active ingredient of Dipsacus asperoides, which has a wide range of biological and pharmacological activity. However, its development and application are restricted due to the poor gastrointestinal permeability and oral bioavailability. This investigation aims to reveal the influence of the self-assembled structure by the interaction between ASP VI and endogenous components NaTC and/or DOPC in the gastrointestinal environment on its biopharmaceutical properties, and novelty elucidated the molecular mechanism for the formation of self-assembled nanomicelles.

METHODS

This change in phase state in gastrointestinal fluids is characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). UPLC-Q-TOF-MS was used to analyze the composition of phase components and the exposure of nanomicelles in vivo. Molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) was applied to preliminarily elucidate the self-assembly mechanism of ASP VI in the gastrointestinal environment. Furthermore, theS8 promoting absorption mechanism of nanomicelles were investigated through in vivo pharmacokinetic experiments, parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA), quadruple single-pass intestinal perfusion in rats, and Caco-2 cell monolayer model.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that the ASP VI could spontaneously form dynamic self-assembled structures with sodium taurocholate (NaTC) and dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DOPC) during gastrointestinal solubilization, which promoted the gastrointestinal absorption and permeability of ASP VI and increased its exposure in vivo, thus improving the biopharmacological characteristics of ASP VI. Moreover, ASP VI-NaTC-DOPC-self-assembled nanostructures (ASP VI-NaTC-DOPC-SAN) manifested higher cellular uptake in Caco-2 cells as evidenced by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, and this study also preliminarily revealed the mechanism of self-assembly formation of ASP VI with endogenous components NaTC and DOPC driven by electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that the dynamic self-assembled phase transition may play a key role in improving the biopharmacological characteristics of insoluble or low permeability active ingredients during the gastrointestinal dissolution of Chinese medicines.

Ginsenoside Rg3 liposomes regulate tumor microenvironment for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer

OBJECTIVE

To improve the solubility and targeting of Ginsenoside Rg3 (G-Rg3), in the current study, we constructed a novel targeting functional material folic acid -poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-cholesteryl methyl carbonate (FA-PEOz-CHMC, FPC) modified G-Rg3 liposomes (FPC-Rg3-L).

METHODS

FPC was synthesized by using folic acid (FA) as a targeted head coupling with acid-activated poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-cholesteryl methyl carbonate. The inhibitory effects of the G-Rg3 preparations on mouse breast cancer cells (4T1) were investigated by CCK-8 assay. Paraffin sections of female BALB/c mice viscera were taken for hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining after continuous tail vein injection of G-Rg3 preparations. BALB/c mice bearing triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) were used as animal models to investigate the inhibition of G-Rg3 preparations on tumor growth and improving quality of life. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and α-smooth muscular actin (α-SMA) were used to investigate the expression of two fibrosis factors in tumor tissues by western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with G-Rg3 solution (Rg3-S) and Rg3-L, FPC-Rg3-L had a significant inhibitory effect on 4T1 cells (p < .01), and the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of FPC-Rg3-L was significantly lower (p < .01). The H&E results showed that the injection of FPC-Rg3-L and Rg3-S did not cause damage to the organs of mice. Compared with the control group, tumor growth was significantly inhibited in mice treated with FPC-Rg3-L and G-Rg3 solutions (p < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents a new and safe treatment for TNBC, reduces the toxic and side effects of the drug, and provides a reference for the efficient use of Chinese herbal medicine components.

Micron and nano hybrid ufasomes from conjugated linoleic acid, their vesiculation and encapsulation of ginsenoside Rg3

BACKGROUND

Unsaturated fatty acids used to form unstable micro-vesicles, while conjugate linoleic acid (CLA)-sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) can self-assembly to stable nano-conjugate linoleic acid vesicles (nano-CLAVs). Generally, micro-capsule could geometrically provide higher loading capacity but also generate concerns in construction convenience, sustained release, bioaccessibility and stability. Hence there is a contradiction between loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency. Therefore, the study of the factors that decide the capsule size falling in nano or micron size with same capsule material would be a benefit to food or drug delivery science.

RESULTS

The micron- and nano-CLAVs were constructed for encapsulation and sustained release of ginsenoside Rg3. The formation mechanism of nano or micron capsule,s the effect of vesicle sizes on encapsulation efficiency, drug loading efficiency and stability of the encapsulated Rg3 were investigated. It was found that with the addition of salt (PBS), the size of CLAVs jumped from nano to micron. Furthermore, the salt concentration is the key factor that decides the vesicle size of nano or micron. The pH at fabrication triggers the vesiculation and dramatically affects the vesicle size over the nano and micron scales.

CONCLUSION

Compared to the nano-CLAVs, micron vesicles enhanced the loading capacity to 137.6% and the encapsulation efficiency to 138.4%, respectively. Meanwhile, the micron-CLAVs performed similar sustained release of Rg3 as the nano-CLAVs did, and was stable for 120 days at room temperature or sustained 98.9% of capsules after centrifuge at 6090 × g for 20 min. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Preparation and pharmacological effects of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles: a review

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to Panax genus of Araliaceae. Ginsenosides are a kind of important compounds in ginseng and minor ginsenosides are secondary metabolic derivatives of ginsenosides. Studies have shown that minor ginsenosides have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-platelet aggregation, and neuroprotective effects. However, the therapeutic effects of minor ginsenosides are limited due to poor solubility in water, short half-life, and poor targeting accuracy. In recent years, to improve the application efficiency, the research on the nanocrystallization of minor ginsenosides have attracted extensive attention from researchers. This review focuses on the classification, preparation methods, pharmacological effects, and action mechanisms of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles, as well as existing problems and future direction of relevant research, which provides a reference for the in-depth research of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles.

Poloxamer 407 and Hyaluronic Acid Thermosensitive Hydrogel-Encapsulated Ginsenoside Rg3 to Promote Skin Wound Healing

Ginsenoside Rg3 has shown beneficial effects in various skin diseases. The current interest in designing and developing hydrogels for biomedical applications continues to grow, inspiring the further development of drug-loaded hydrogels for tissue repair and localized drug delivery. The aim of the present study was to develop an effective and safe hydrogel (Rg3-Gel), using ginsenoside Rg3, and we evaluated the wound-healing potential and therapeutic mechanism of Rg3-Gel. The results indicated that the optimized Rg3-Gel underwent discontinuous phase transition at low and high temperatures. Rg3-Gel also exhibited good network structures, swelling water retention capacity, sustainable release performance, and excellent biocompatibility. Subsequently, the good antibacterial and antioxidant properties of Rg3-Gel were confirmed by in vitro tests. In full-thickness skin defect wounded models, Rg3-Gel significantly accelerated the wound contraction, promoted epithelial and tissue regeneration, and promoted collagen deposition and angiogenesis. In addition, Rg3-Gel increased the expression of autophagy proteins by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-KB pathways in vivo. It simultaneously regulated host immunity by increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria and the diversity of the wound surface flora. From these preliminary evaluations, it is possible to conclude that Rg3-Gel has excellent application potential in wound-healing drug delivery systems.

Lipid Membranes as Key Targets for the Pharmacological Actions of Ginsenosides

In this review, we will focus on the activity of ginsenosides on membranes and their related effects, from physicochemical, biophysical, and pharmacological viewpoints. Ginsenosides are a class of saponins with a large structural diversity and a wide range of pharmacological effects. These effects can at least partly be related to their activity on membranes which results from their amphiphilic character. Some ginsenosides are able to interact with membrane lipids and associate into nanostructures, making them possible adjuvants for vaccines. They are able to modulate membrane biophysical properties such as membrane fluidity, permeability or the formation of lateral domains with some degree of specificity towards certain cell types such as bacteria, fungi, or cancer cells. In addition, they have shown antioxidant properties which protect membranes from lipid oxidation. They further displayed some activity on membrane proteins either through direct or indirect interaction. We investigate the structure activity relationship of ginsenosides on membranes and discuss the implications and potential use as anticancer, antibacterial, and antifungal agents.

Therapeutic effects of ginsenosides on breast cancer growth and metastasis

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related deaths among women worldwide. Thus, the development of new and effective low-toxicity drugs is vital. The specific characteristics of breast cancer have allowed for the development of targeted therapy towards each breast cancer subtype. Nevertheless, increasing drug resistance is displayed by the changing phenotype and microenvironments of the tumor through mutation or dysregulation of various mechanisms. Recently, emerging data on the therapeutic potential of biocompounds isolated from ginseng have been reported. Therefore, in this review, various roles of ginsenosides in the treatment of breast cancer, including apoptosis, autophagy, metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, epigenetic changes, combination therapy, and drug delivery system, have been discussed.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits the biological activity of SGC-7901

AIM

To explore the suppressive effects of ginsenoside Rg3 on the biological activities of gastric cancer and the mechanisms responsible therein, by conducting an in vitro study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SGC-7901 gastric cancer cells were divided into NC, DMSO, Gin-Low (10 mg/L), Gin-Middle (20 mg/L), and Gin-High (40 mg/L) groups. Using MTT, flow cytometry, transwell, and wound-healing assays, the cell biological activities in the different groups were evaluated; the protein expression levels of PTEN, p-PI3K, AKT, and P53 were measured by Western blot assay, and p-PI3K nuclear volume was evaluated by immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

The SGC-7901 cell proliferation rate was depressed significantly, and cell apoptosis increased significantly while cells were arrested in the G1 phase (p < .05) with ginsenoside Rg3 treatment in a dose-dependent manner (p < .05). Meanwhile, the SGC-7901 cell invasion number and wound-healing rate of ginsenoside Rg3-treated groups were significantly downregulated compared with those of the NC group, also in a dose-dependent manner (p < .05). PTEN and P53 protein expression levels were significantly increased, and p-PI3K and AKT protein expression levels were significantly depressed in ginsenoside Rg3-treated groups in a dose-dependent manner (p < .05).

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rg3 suppresses gastric cancer via regulation of the PTEN/p-PI3K/AKT pathway.

Effects of the molecular weight and molar ratio of poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-based lipid on the pH sensitivity, stability, and antitumor efficacy of liposomes

In this study, we evaluated and screened the effects of the molecular weight (MW) and molar ratio of poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-cholesteryl methyl carbonate (PEtOz-CHMC) on the pH sensitivity, stability, and antitumor efficacy of liposomes. The pH sensitivity of PEtOz-CHMC with different MWs and molar ratios was screened by drug release and cytotoxicity experiments at different pH levels. Results indicated that the liposomes coated with PEtOz1k-CHMC (7% molar ratio) and PEtOz2k-CHMC (5% molar ratio) exhibited the desirable pH responsiveness. When the MW of PEtOz was relatively low, 7% of the modified ratio obtained the strongest stability, but the turbidity of the liposomes did not obviously change when the molar ratio of PEtOz-CHMC was further increased. A375 cells were used as models to investigate the cellular uptake and intracellular localization of coumarin-6-loaded liposomes (C6-L), PEGylated liposomes (PEG-C6-L), and PEtOzylated liposomes. PEtOz1k-C6-L and PEtOz2k-C6-L presented remarkably stronger fluorescence intensity at low pH than at pH 7.4, whereas C6-L and PEG-C6-L did not achieve any obvious diversity at different pH conditions. Compared with C6-L and PEG-C6-L, PEtOz-C6-L showed efficient intracellular trafficking, including endosomal/lysosomal escape and cytoplasmic release. Pharmacokinetic experiments demonstrated that half-lives of PEG2k-C6-L, PEtOz2k-C6-L, and PEtOz1k-C6-L were 11.89-, 7.00-, and 5.29-fold times higher than those of C6-L, respectively. Among the liposomes, the DOX·HCl-loaded liposomes coated with PEtOz2k-CHMC demonstrated the strongest antitumor efficacy against B16 tumor xenograft models in vivo. These findings provide the feasibility of using PEtOz-CHMC with optimal pH sensitivity and long circulation to extend the application of liposomes to efficient anticancer drug delivery.

Plant Resources, (13)C-NMR Spectral Characteristic and Pharmacological Activities of Dammarane-Type Triterpenoids

Dammarane-type triterpenoids (DTT) widely distribute in various medicinal plants. They have generated a great amount of interest in the field of new drug research and development. Generally, DTT are the main bioactive ingredients abundant in Araliaceae plants, such as Panax ginseng, P. japonicas, P. notoginseng, and P. quinquefolium. Aside from Araliaceae, DTT also distribute in other families, including Betulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Meliaceae, Rhamnaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. Until now, about 136 species belonging to 46 families have been reported to contain DTT. In this article, the genus classifications of plant sources of the botanicals that contain DTT are reviewed, with particular focus on the NMR spectral features and pharmacological activities based on literature reports, which may be benefit for the development of new drugs or food additives.

Insight into the pharmacokinetic behavior of tanshinone IIA in the treatment of Crohn's disease: comparative data for tanshinone IIA and its two glucuronidated metabolites in normal and recurrent colitis models after oral administration

1. Previous reports implied that tanshinone IIA (TSA) may offer potential benefits for Crohn's disease (CD). However, the detailed pharmacokinetic behavior of TSA in the treatment of colitis remain unclear. Herein, a recurrent trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-colitis mouse model was used to investigate whether TSA possesses favorable pharmacokinetic and colonic distribution profiles to serve as a candidate drug. 2. Although the systemic TSA exposures were low (AUC_0-t approximately 330 ng*h/ml) in both the normal and colitis models after oral administration TSA 20 mg/kg, high levels of TSA were found in the gastrointestinal tract (GI). Such a GI exposure of TSA in colitis mice is adequate to exert anti-inflammatory effects as observed in various in vitro studies. 3. Interestingly, colonic TSA exposure in the colitis mouse model was much lower than that in the normal mice, which may be explained by a significant upregulation of colonic UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (Ugt)1a9 expression and a higher plasma concentration of TSA glucuronides in the model mice at 0.5, 1 and 2 h after TSA administration. 4. Together, these results reveal high accumulation at the site of inflammation and minimal systemic concentration of TSA, which are favorable pharmacokinetic behaviors to meet the requirements for CD treatment.

Recent trends of nano bioactive compounds from ginseng for its possible preventive role in chronic disease models

Bioactive nano ginseng has roles in various diseases.