Analytical Methods for Determining Psychoactive Substances in Various Matrices: A Review

Psychoactive substances pose significant challenges and dangers to society due to their impact on perception, mood, and behavior, leading to health and life disturbances. The consumption of these substances is largely influenced by their legal status, cultural norms, and religious beliefs. Continuous development and chemical modifications of psychoactive substances complicate their control, detection, and determination in the human body. This paper addresses the terminological distinctions between psychoactive and psychotropic substances and drugs. It provides a comprehensive review of analytical methods used to identify and quantify 25 psychoactive substances in various biological matrices, including blood, urine, saliva, hair, and nails. The analysis categorizes these substances into four primary groups: stimulants, neuroleptics, depressants, and hallucinogens. The study specifically focuses on chromatographic and spectrophotometric methods, as well as other novel analytical techniques. Methodology includes a review of scientific articles containing validation studies of these methods and innovative approaches to psychoactive substance determination. Articles were sourced from the PubMed database, with most research originating from the twenty first century. The paper discusses the limits of detection and quantitation for each method, along with current trends and challenges in the analytical determination of evolving psychoactive substances.

LC-MS-MS Determination of 88 Psychotropic Drugs in 1,865 Hair Samples from Addicts in Drug Abstinence

The emergence of novel drugs and the continuous expansion of the scope of the types of drugs under control have greatly increased requests for screening of a range of drugs in hair. Here, a multi-analyte method for the detection and quantification of 88 psychotropic drugs in the hair of addicts in drug abstinence was developed and fully validated using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Hair samples (25 mg) were washed, cut into pieces, cryogenically ground and extracted in methanol. The extracted analytes were separated on an Allure PFP Propyl column (100 × 2.1 mm, 5 mm inside diameter, Restek, USA) and analyzed by LC-MS-MS in multiple reaction monitoring modes. The limits of detection and the limits of quantification ranged from 0.1 to 20 pg/mg and 0.2 to 50 pg/mg, respectively. The intra- and inter-assay precisions (relative standard deviation (RSD)) of all analyses ranged from 0.9% to 14.9% and 1.9% to 15.9%, respectively. Accuracy values were 100 ± 20%. The extraction recovery of quality control samples ranged from 50.9% to 99.6% for all analytes. The matrix effects for all analytes ranged from 46.8% to 99.7%. The method was successfully used to analyze 1,865 hair samples from addicts in drug rehabilitation at their own communities. Among the samples, 129 cases were positive; the majority of positive cases were from males (78.29%), 92.25% of whom were >35 years old. Traditional drugs, like methamphetamine and opioids, accounted for most positive cases, and 27 of the abstinence cases with a use history of methamphetamine were still positive. In addition to abused drugs, like methamphetamine, morphine and cocaine, the sedative-hypnotic and psychotherapeutic drugs, including clonazepam, alprazolam, estazolam, zolpidem and quetiapine, were detected in 26% of the hair samples, suggesting that these addicts may have insomnia and mental problems such as depression and psychosis, probably due to the long-term effects of drugs and withdrawal reactions. Three synthetic cannabinoids were also detected in four (2.7%) cases. A total of 37 cases were positive for methadone, tramadol and dextromethorphan, reflecting a new trend of alternative drug use when traditional drugs were not easy to obtain during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak.

History of hair analysis by mass spectrometry imaging

In conventional forensic science, blood and urine have been used for drug testing. However, hair has recently attracted attention as a new source of biological information in this milieu. Drugs and biomolecules taken up by the hair from the capillaries of the scalp are retained in the hair without being degraded by enzymes, migrating toward the tip of the hair as the hair grows at a constant rate. As a result, drug residues are stored in the hair in chronological order. In recent years, mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) has been developed to visualize the history of drug use in hair samples, making use of this unique property. Advances in this drug testing technique are expected to create a powerful deterrent for drug abuse and doping. In this paper, we introduce the history of hair research using MSI and the evolution of instruments, matrices, and methods.

Forensic determination of hair deposition time in crime scenes using electron paramagnetic resonance

Several types of biological samples, including hair strands, are found at crime scenes. Apart from the identification of the value and the contributor of the probative evidence, it is important to prove that the time of shedding of hair belonging to a suspect or victim matches the crime window. To this end, to estimate the ex vivo aging of hair, we evaluated time-dependent changes in melanin-derived free radicals in blond, brown, and black hairs by using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR). Hair strands aged under controlled conditions (humidity 40%, temperature 20-22°C, indirect light, with 12/12 hour of light/darkness cycles) showed a time-dependent decay of melanin-derived radicals. The half-life of eumelanin-derived radicals in hair under our experimental settings was estimated at 22 ± 2 days whereas that of pheomelanin was about 2 days suggesting better stabilization of unpaired electrons by eumelanin. Taken together, this study provides a reference for future forensic studies on determination of degradation of shed hair in a crime scene by following eumelanin radicals by utilizing the non-invasive, non-destructive, and highly specific EPR technique.