1
|
Calarco JA, Taylor SR, Miller DM. Detecting gene expression in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 2025; 229:1-108. [PMID: 39693264 PMCID: PMC11979774 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyae167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/30/2024] [Indexed: 12/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Reliable methods for detecting and analyzing gene expression are necessary tools for understanding development and investigating biological responses to genetic and environmental perturbation. With its fully sequenced genome, invariant cell lineage, transparent body, wiring diagram, detailed anatomy, and wide array of genetic tools, Caenorhabditis elegans is an exceptionally useful model organism for linking gene expression to cellular phenotypes. The development of new techniques in recent years has greatly expanded our ability to detect gene expression at high resolution. Here, we provide an overview of gene expression methods for C. elegans, including techniques for detecting transcripts and proteins in situ, bulk RNA sequencing of whole worms and specific tissues and cells, single-cell RNA sequencing, and high-throughput proteomics. We discuss important considerations for choosing among these techniques and provide an overview of publicly available online resources for gene expression data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Calarco
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, M5S 3G5
| | - Seth R Taylor
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - David M Miller
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ciolli Mattioli C, Avraham R. Single-Molecule Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (smFISH) for RNA Detection in Bacteria. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2784:3-23. [PMID: 38502475 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3766-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
In this chapter, we describe in detail how to perform a successful smFISH experiment and how to quantify mRNA transcripts in bacterial cells. The flexibility of the method allows for straightforward adaptation to different bacterial species and experimental conditions. Thanks to the feasibility of the approach, the method can easily be adapted by other laboratories. Finally, we believe that this method has a great potential to generate insights into the complicated life of bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Ciolli Mattioli
- Department of Immunology and Regenerative Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
| | - Roi Avraham
- Department of Immunology and Regenerative Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cardoso-Jaime V, Maya-Maldonado K, Tsutsumi V, Hernández-Martínez S. Mosquito pericardial cells upregulate Cecropin expression after an immune challenge. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 147:104745. [PMID: 37268262 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2023.104745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Most mosquito-transmitted pathogens grow or replicate in the midgut before invading the salivary glands. Pathogens are exposed to several immunological factors along the way. Recently, it was shown that hemocytes gather near the periostial region of the heart to efficiently phagocytose pathogens circulating in the hemolymph. Nerveless, not all pathogens can be phagocyted by hemocytes and eliminated by lysis. Interestingly, some studies have shown that pericardial cells (PCs) surrounding periostial regions, may produce humoral factors, such as lysozymes. Our current work provides evidence that Anopheles albimanus PCs are a major producer of Cecropin 1 (Cec1). Furthermore, our findings reveal that after an immunological challenge, PCs upregulate Cec1 expression. We conclude that PCs are positioned in a strategic location that could allow releasing humoral components, such as cecropin, to lyse pathogens on the heart or circulating in the hemolymph, implying that PCs could play a significant role in the systemic immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor Cardoso-Jaime
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico; Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico
| | - Krystal Maya-Maldonado
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico; Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico
| | - Víctor Tsutsumi
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, C.P. 07360, Mexico.
| | - Salvador Hernández-Martínez
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Av. Universidad 655, Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62100, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Monné Rodríguez JM, Frisk AL, Kreutzer R, Lemarchand T, Lezmi S, Saravanan C, Stierstorfer B, Thuilliez C, Vezzali E, Wieczorek G, Yun SW, Schaudien D. European Society of Toxicologic Pathology (Pathology 2.0 Molecular Pathology Special Interest Group): Review of In Situ Hybridization Techniques for Drug Research and Development. Toxicol Pathol 2023; 51:92-111. [PMID: 37449403 PMCID: PMC10467011 DOI: 10.1177/01926233231178282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
In situ hybridization (ISH) is used for the localization of specific nucleic acid sequences in cells or tissues by complementary binding of a nucleotide probe to a specific target nucleic acid sequence. In the last years, the specificity and sensitivity of ISH assays were improved by innovative techniques like synthetic nucleic acids and tandem oligonucleotide probes combined with signal amplification methods like branched DNA, hybridization chain reaction and tyramide signal amplification. These improvements increased the application spectrum for ISH on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues. ISH is a powerful tool to investigate DNA, mRNA transcripts, regulatory noncoding RNA, and therapeutic oligonucleotides. ISH can be used to obtain spatial information of a cell type, subcellular localization, or expression levels of targets. Since immunohistochemistry and ISH share similar workflows, their combination can address simultaneous transcriptomics and proteomics questions. The goal of this review paper is to revisit the current state of the scientific approaches in ISH and its application in drug research and development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Seong-Wook Yun
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riß, Germany
| | - Dirk Schaudien
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
HT-smFISH: a cost-effective and flexible workflow for high-throughput single-molecule RNA imaging. Nat Protoc 2023; 18:157-187. [PMID: 36280749 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-022-00750-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The ability to visualize RNA in its native subcellular environment by using single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) has reshaped our understanding of gene expression and cellular functions. A major hindrance of smFISH is the difficulty to perform systematic experiments in medium- or high-throughput formats, principally because of the high cost of generating the individual fluorescent probe sets. Here, we present high-throughput smFISH (HT-smFISH), a simple and cost-efficient method for imaging hundreds to thousands of single endogenous RNA molecules in 96-well plates. HT-smFISH uses RNA probes transcribed in vitro from a large pool of unlabeled oligonucleotides. This allows the generation of individual probes for many RNA species, replacing commercial DNA probe sets. HT-smFISH thus reduces costs per targeted RNA compared with many smFISH methods and is easily scalable and flexible in design. We provide a protocol that combines oligo pool design, probe set generation, optimized hybridization conditions and guidelines for image acquisition and analysis. The pipeline requires knowledge of standard molecular biology tools, cell culture and fluorescence microscopy. It is achievable in ~20 d. In brief, HT-smFISH is tailored for medium- to high-throughput screens that image RNAs at single-molecule sensitivity.
Collapse
|
6
|
ClampFISH 2.0 enables rapid, scalable amplified RNA detection in situ. Nat Methods 2022; 19:1403-1410. [PMID: 36280724 PMCID: PMC9838136 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-022-01653-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
RNA labeling in situ has enormous potential to visualize transcripts and quantify their levels in single cells, but it remains challenging to produce high levels of signal while also enabling multiplexed detection of multiple RNA species simultaneously. Here, we describe clampFISH 2.0, a method that uses an inverted padlock design to efficiently detect many RNA species and exponentially amplify their signals at once, while also reducing the time and cost compared with the prior clampFISH method. We leverage the increased throughput afforded by multiplexed signal amplification and sequential detection to detect 10 different RNA species in more than 1 million cells. We also show that clampFISH 2.0 works in tissue sections. We expect that the advantages offered by clampFISH 2.0 will enable many applications in spatial transcriptomics.
Collapse
|
7
|
Single-Cell FISH Analysis Reveals Distinct Shifts in PKM Isoform Populations during Drug Resistance Acquisition. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12081082. [PMID: 36008976 PMCID: PMC9405743 DOI: 10.3390/biom12081082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Warburg effect, i.e., the utilization of glycolysis under aerobic conditions, is recognized as a survival advantage of cancer cells. However, how the glycolytic activity is affected during drug resistance acquisition has not been explored at single-cell resolution. Because the relative ratio of the splicing isoform of pyruvate kinase M (PKM), PKM2/PKM1, can be used to estimate glycolytic activity, we utilized a single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (SM-FISH) method to simultaneously quantify the mRNA levels of PKM1 and PKM2. Treatment of HCT116 cells with gefitinib (GE) resulted in two distinct populations of cells. However, as cells developed GE resistance, the GE-sensitive population with reduced PKM2 expression disappeared, and GE-resistant cells (Res) demonstrated enhanced PKM1 expression and a tightly regulated PKM2/PKM1 ratio. Our data suggest that maintaining an appropriate PKM2 level is important for cell survival upon GE treatment, whereas increased PKM1 expression becomes crucial in GE Res. This approach demonstrates the importance of single-cell-based analysis for our understanding of cancer cell metabolic responses to drugs, which could aid in the design of treatment strategies for drug-resistant cancers.
Collapse
|
8
|
Alecki C, Vera M. Role of Nuclear Non-Canonical Nucleic Acid Structures in Organismal Development and Adaptation to Stress Conditions. Front Genet 2022; 13:823241. [PMID: 35281835 PMCID: PMC8906566 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.823241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decades, numerous examples have involved nuclear non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the regulation of gene expression. ncRNAs can interact with the genome by forming non-canonical nucleic acid structures such as R-loops or DNA:RNA triplexes. They bind chromatin and DNA modifiers and transcription factors and favor or prevent their targeting to specific DNA sequences and regulate gene expression of diverse genes. We review the function of these non-canonical nucleic acid structures in regulating gene expression of multicellular organisms during development and in response to different stress conditions and DNA damage using examples described in several organisms, from plants to humans. We also overview recent techniques developed to study where R-loops or DNA:RNA triplexes are formed in the genome and their interaction with proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Célia Alecki
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Maria Vera
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Christopher JA, Geladaki A, Dawson CS, Vennard OL, Lilley KS. Subcellular Transcriptomics and Proteomics: A Comparative Methods Review. Mol Cell Proteomics 2022; 21:100186. [PMID: 34922010 PMCID: PMC8864473 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2021.100186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The internal environment of cells is molecularly crowded, which requires spatial organization via subcellular compartmentalization. These compartments harbor specific conditions for molecules to perform their biological functions, such as coordination of the cell cycle, cell survival, and growth. This compartmentalization is also not static, with molecules trafficking between these subcellular neighborhoods to carry out their functions. For example, some biomolecules are multifunctional, requiring an environment with differing conditions or interacting partners, and others traffic to export such molecules. Aberrant localization of proteins or RNA species has been linked to many pathological conditions, such as neurological, cancer, and pulmonary diseases. Differential expression studies in transcriptomics and proteomics are relatively common, but the majority have overlooked the importance of subcellular information. In addition, subcellular transcriptomics and proteomics data do not always colocate because of the biochemical processes that occur during and after translation, highlighting the complementary nature of these fields. In this review, we discuss and directly compare the current methods in spatial proteomics and transcriptomics, which include sequencing- and imaging-based strategies, to give the reader an overview of the current tools available. We also discuss current limitations of these strategies as well as future developments in the field of spatial -omics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josie A Christopher
- Department of Biochemistry, Cambridge Centre for Proteomics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Milner Therapeutics Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - Aikaterini Geladaki
- Department of Biochemistry, Cambridge Centre for Proteomics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Charlotte S Dawson
- Department of Biochemistry, Cambridge Centre for Proteomics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Milner Therapeutics Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - Owen L Vennard
- Department of Biochemistry, Cambridge Centre for Proteomics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Milner Therapeutics Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kathryn S Lilley
- Department of Biochemistry, Cambridge Centre for Proteomics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Milner Therapeutics Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Egloff S, Melnychuk N, Cruz Da Silva E, Reisch A, Martin S, Klymchenko AS. Amplified Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization by Small and Bright Dye-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles. ACS NANO 2022; 16:1381-1394. [PMID: 34928570 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c09409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Detection and imaging of RNA at the single-cell level is of utmost importance for fundamental research and clinical diagnostics. Current techniques of RNA analysis, including fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), are long, complex, and expensive. Here, we report a methodology of amplified FISH (AmpliFISH) that enables simpler and faster RNA imaging using small and ultrabright dye-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized with DNA. We found that the small size of NPs (below 20 nm) was essential for their access to the intracellular mRNA targets in fixed permeabilized cells. Moreover, proper selection of the polymer matrix of DNA-NPs minimized nonspecific intracellular interactions. Optimized DNA-NPs enabled sequence-specific imaging of different mRNA targets (survivin, actin, and polyA tails), using a simple 1 h staining protocol. Encapsulation of cyanine and rhodamine dyes with bulky counterions yielded green-, red-, and far-red-emitting NPs that were 2-100-fold brighter than corresponding quantum dots. These NPs enabled multiplexed detection of three mRNA targets simultaneously, showing distinctive mRNA expression profiles in three cancer cell lines. Image analysis confirmed the single-particle nature of the intracellular signal, suggesting single-molecule sensitivity of the method. AmpliFISH was found to be semiquantitative, correlating with RT-qPCR. In comparison with the commercial locked nucleic acid (LNA)-based FISH technique, AmpliFISH provides 8-200-fold stronger signal (dependent on the NP color) and requires only three steps vs ∼20 steps together with a much shorter time. Thus, combination of bright fluorescent polymeric NPs with FISH yields a fast and sensitive single-cell transcriptomic analysis method for RNA research and clinical diagnostics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Egloff
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| | - Nina Melnychuk
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| | - Elisabete Cruz Da Silva
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| | - Andreas Reisch
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| | - Sophie Martin
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| | - Andrey S Klymchenko
- Laboratoire de Bioimagerie et Pathologies, UMR 7021 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Strasbourg, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch, France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Xue C, Luo M, Wang L, Li C, Hu S, Yu X, Yuan P, Wu ZS. Stimuli-Responsive Autonomous-Motion Molecular Machine for Sensitive Simultaneous Fluorescence Imaging of Intracellular MicroRNAs. Anal Chem 2021; 93:9869-9877. [PMID: 34232018 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
DNAzymes with enzymatic activity identified from random DNA pools by in vitro selection have recently attracted considerable attention. In this work, a DNAzyme-based autonomous-motion (AM) molecular machine is demonstrated for sensitive simultaneous imaging of different intracellular microRNAs (miRNAs). The AM molecular machine consists of two basic elements, one of which is a target-analogue-embedded double-stem hairpin substrate (TDHS) and the other is a locking-strand-silenced DNAzyme (LSDz). LSDz can be activated by target miRNA and catalytically cleave TDHS, generating Clv-TDHS and releasing free target analogue capable of triggering the next round of cleavage reaction. As such, the molecular machine can exert sustainable autonomous operation, producing an enhanced signal. Because the active target analogue comes from the machine itself and offers cyclical stimulation in a feedback manner, this target-induced autonomous cleavage circuit is termed a self-feedback circuit (SFC). The SFC-based molecular machine can be used to quantify miRNA-21 down to 10 pM without interference from nontarget miRNAs, indicating a substantial improvement in assay performance compared with its counterpart system without an SFC effect. Moreover, due to the enzyme-free process, the AM molecular machine is suitable for miRNA imaging in living cells, and the quantitative results are consistent with the gold standard PCR assay. More interestingly, the AM molecular machine can be used for the simultaneous fluorescence imaging of several intracellular miRNAs, enabling the accurate discrimination of cancerous cells (e.g., HeLa and MCF-7) from healthy cells. The SFC-based autonomous-motion machine is expected to be a promising tool for the research of molecular biology and early diagnosis of human diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Xue
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Mengxue Luo
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Lei Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Congcong Li
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Shuyao Hu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Xin Yu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Pei Yuan
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Zai-Sheng Wu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Cancer Metastasis Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy, Pharmaceutical Photocatalysis of State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Broix L, Turchetto S, Nguyen L. Coordination between Transport and Local Translation in Neurons. Trends Cell Biol 2021; 31:372-386. [PMID: 33526339 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The axonal microtubules (MTs) support long-distance transport of cargoes that are dispatched to distinct cellular subcompartments. Among them, mRNAs are directly transported in membraneless ribonucleoprotein (RNP) granules that, together with ribosomes, can also hitchhike on fast-moving membrane-bound organelles for accurate transport along MTs. These organelles serve as platforms for mRNA translation, thus generating axonal foci of newly synthesized proteins. Local translation along axons not only supports MT network integrity but also modulates the processivity and function of molecular motors to allow proper trafficking of cargoes along MTs. Thus, identifying the mechanisms that coordinate axonal transport with local protein synthesis will shed new light on the processes underlying axon development and maintenance, whose deregulation often contribute to neurological disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Broix
- GIGA Stem Cells, GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Silvia Turchetto
- GIGA Stem Cells, GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Laurent Nguyen
- GIGA Stem Cells, GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wan J, Lu H. Enabling high-throughput single-animal gene-expression studies with molecular and micro-scale technologies. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:4528-4538. [PMID: 33237042 PMCID: PMC7769683 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00881h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Gene expression and regulation play diverse and important roles across all living systems. By quantifying the expression, whether in a sample of single cells, a specific tissue, or in a whole animal, one can gain insights into the underlying biology. Many biological questions now require single-animal and tissue-specific resolution, such as why individuals, even within an isogenic population, have variations in development and aging across different tissues and organs. The popular techniques that quantify the transcriptome (e.g. RNA-sequencing) process populations of animals and cells together and thus, have limitations in both individual and spatial resolution. There are single-animal assays available (e.g. fluorescent reporters); however, they suffer other technical bottlenecks, such as a lack of robust sample-handling methods. Microfluidic technologies have demonstrated various improvements throughout the years, and it is likely they can enhance the impact of these single-animal gene-expression assays. In this perspective, we aim to highlight how the engineering/method-development field have unique opportunities to create new tools that can enable us to robustly answer the next set of important questions in biology that require high-density, high-quality gene expression data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason Wan
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA.
| | - Hang Lu
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA. and School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Markey FB, Parashar V, Batish M. Methods for spatial and temporal imaging of the different steps involved in RNA processing at single-molecule resolution. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-RNA 2020; 12:e1608. [PMID: 32543077 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RNA plays a quintessential role as a messenger of information from genotype (DNA) to phenotype (proteins), as well as acts as a regulatory molecule (noncoding RNAs). All steps in the journey of RNA from synthesis (transcription), splicing, transport, localization, translation, to its eventual degradation, comprise important steps in gene expression, thereby controlling the fate of the cell. This lifecycle refers to the majority of RNAs (primarily mRNAs), but not other RNAs such as tRNAs. Imaging these processes in fixed cells and in live cells has been an important tool in developing an understanding of the regulatory steps in RNAs journey. Single-cell and single-molecule imaging techniques enable a much deeper understanding of cellular biology, which is not possible with bulk studies involving RNA isolated from a large pool of cells. Classic techniques, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), as well as more recent aptamer-based approaches, have provided detailed insights into RNA localization, and have helped to predict the functions carried out by many RNA species. However, there are still certain processing steps that await high-resolution imaging, which is an exciting and upcoming area of research. In this review, we will discuss the methods that have revolutionized single-molecule resolution imaging in general, the steps of RNA processing in which these methods have been used, and new emerging technologies. This article is categorized under: RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization RNA Methods > RNA Analyses in Cells RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Small Molecule-RNA Interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatu Badiane Markey
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Vijay Parashar
- Department of Medical and Molecular Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Mona Batish
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Medical and Molecular Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Sending messages in moving cells: mRNA localization and the regulation of cell migration. Essays Biochem 2020; 63:595-606. [PMID: 31324705 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20190009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cell migration is a fundamental biological process involved in tissue formation and homeostasis. The correct polarization of motile cells is critical to ensure directed movement, and is orchestrated by many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Of these, the subcellular distribution of mRNAs and the consequent spatial control of translation are key modulators of cell polarity. mRNA transport is dependent on cis-regulatory elements within transcripts, which are recognized by trans-acting proteins that ensure the efficient delivery of certain messages to the leading edge of migrating cells. At their destination, translation of localized mRNAs then participates in regional cellular responses underlying cell motility. In this review, we summarize the key findings that established mRNA targetting as a critical driver of cell migration and how the characterization of polarized mRNAs in motile cells has been expanded from just a few species to hundreds of transcripts. We also describe the molecular control of mRNA trafficking, subsequent mechanisms of local protein synthesis and how these ultimately regulate cell polarity during migration.
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
In the postgenomic era, it is clear that the human genome encodes thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). Along the way, RNA imaging (e.g., RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization [RNA-FISH]) has been instrumental in identifying powerful roles for lncRNAs based on their subcellular localization patterns. Here, we explore how RNA imaging technologies have shed new light on how, when, and where lncRNAs may play functional roles. Specifically, we will synthesize the underlying principles of RNA imaging techniques by exploring several landmark lncRNA imaging studies that have illuminated key insights into lncRNA biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Raj
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - John L Rinn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder and BioFrontiers Institute, Boulder, Colorado 80303
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Adivarahan S, Zenklusen D. Lessons from (pre-)mRNA Imaging. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1203:247-284. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-31434-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
18
|
Pichon X, Lagha M, Mueller F, Bertrand E. A Growing Toolbox to Image Gene Expression in Single Cells: Sensitive Approaches for Demanding Challenges. Mol Cell 2018; 71:468-480. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2018.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
19
|
Comparative Study of Novel Fluorescent Cyanine Nucleotides: Hybridization Analysis of Labeled PCR Products Using a Biochip. J Fluoresc 2017; 27:2001-2016. [PMID: 28752470 DOI: 10.1007/s10895-017-2139-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the synthesis and substrate properties of Cy5-labeled dUTP derivatives with different substituents, linkers between the dye unit and pyrimidine heterocycle and fluorophore charges. Fluorescently labeled nucleoside triphosphates were studied as substrates using multiplex PCR with Taq and Vent (exo-) DNA polymerases, the typical representatives of the A and B polymerase families. The efficiency of nucleotide incorporation during PCR was assessed with a multi-parameter hybridization analysis using a diagnostic DNA microarray. The hybridization analysis indirectly estimates the incorporation efficiency of dye-labeled nucleotides in multiplex PCR. Our results demonstrated higher efficiencies of substrates with electrically neutral dyes than electropositive and electronegative Cy5 residues.
Collapse
|
20
|
Vera M, Biswas J, Senecal A, Singer RH, Park HY. Single-Cell and Single-Molecule Analysis of Gene Expression Regulation. Annu Rev Genet 2017; 50:267-291. [PMID: 27893965 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120215-034854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Recent advancements in single-cell and single-molecule imaging technologies have resolved biological processes in time and space that are fundamental to understanding the regulation of gene expression. Observations of single-molecule events in their cellular context have revealed highly dynamic aspects of transcriptional and post-transcriptional control in eukaryotic cells. This approach can relate transcription with mRNA abundance and lifetimes. Another key aspect of single-cell analysis is the cell-to-cell variability among populations of cells. Definition of heterogeneity has revealed stochastic processes, determined characteristics of under-represented cell types or transitional states, and integrated cellular behaviors in the context of multicellular organisms. In this review, we discuss novel aspects of gene expression of eukaryotic cells and multicellular organisms revealed by the latest advances in single-cell and single-molecule imaging technology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Vera
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY 10461; , , ,
| | - Jeetayu Biswas
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY 10461; , , ,
| | - Adrien Senecal
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY 10461; , , ,
| | - Robert H Singer
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY 10461; , , , .,Janelia Research Campus of the HHMI, Ashburn, Virginia 20147
| | - Hye Yoon Park
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea; .,Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Techniques for Single-Molecule mRNA Imaging in Living Cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 978:425-441. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53889-1_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
22
|
Cui C, Shu W, Li P. Fluorescence In situ Hybridization: Cell-Based Genetic Diagnostic and Research Applications. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:89. [PMID: 27656642 PMCID: PMC5011256 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a macromolecule recognition technology based on the complementary nature of DNA or DNA/RNA double strands. Selected DNA strands incorporated with fluorophore-coupled nucleotides can be used as probes to hybridize onto the complementary sequences in tested cells and tissues and then visualized through a fluorescence microscope or an imaging system. This technology was initially developed as a physical mapping tool to delineate genes within chromosomes. Its high analytical resolution to a single gene level and high sensitivity and specificity enabled an immediate application for genetic diagnosis of constitutional common aneuploidies, microdeletion/microduplication syndromes, and subtelomeric rearrangements. FISH tests using panels of gene-specific probes for somatic recurrent losses, gains, and translocations have been routinely applied for hematologic and solid tumors and are one of the fastest-growing areas in cancer diagnosis. FISH has also been used to detect infectious microbias and parasites like malaria in human blood cells. Recent advances in FISH technology involve various methods for improving probe labeling efficiency and the use of super resolution imaging systems for direct visualization of intra-nuclear chromosomal organization and profiling of RNA transcription in single cells. Cas9-mediated FISH (CASFISH) allowed in situ labeling of repetitive sequences and single-copy sequences without the disruption of nuclear genomic organization in fixed or living cells. Using oligopaint-FISH and super-resolution imaging enabled in situ visualization of chromosome haplotypes from differentially specified single-nucleotide polymorphism loci. Single molecule RNA FISH (smRNA-FISH) using combinatorial labeling or sequential barcoding by multiple round of hybridization were applied to measure mRNA expression of multiple genes within single cells. Research applications of these single molecule single cells DNA and RNA FISH techniques have visualized intra-nuclear genomic structure and sub-cellular transcriptional dynamics of many genes and revealed their functions in various biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenghua Cui
- Laboratory of Clinical Cytogenetics, Department of Genetics, Yale School of MedicineNew Haven, CT, USA; Department of Pathology, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesTianjin, China
| | - Wei Shu
- Laboratory of Clinical Cytogenetics, Department of Genetics, Yale School of MedicineNew Haven, CT, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Guangxi Medical UniversityNanning, China
| | - Peining Li
- Laboratory of Clinical Cytogenetics, Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Buxbaum AR, Yoon YJ, Singer RH, Park HY. Single-molecule insights into mRNA dynamics in neurons. Trends Cell Biol 2015; 25:468-75. [PMID: 26052005 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Targeting of mRNAs to neuronal dendrites and axons plays an integral role in intracellular signaling, development, and synaptic plasticity. Single-molecule imaging of mRNAs in neurons and brain tissue has led to enhanced understanding of mRNA dynamics. Here we discuss aspects of mRNA regulation as revealed by single-molecule detection, which has led to quantitative analyses of mRNA diversity, localization, transport, and translation. These exciting new discoveries propel our understanding of the life of an mRNA in a neuron and how its activity is regulated at the single-molecule level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adina R Buxbaum
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Young J Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Robert H Singer
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Hye Yoon Park
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA; Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea; Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
The location of a molecule within the cell often provides important clues to its function and regulation, therefore techniques to locate RNA within cells are vital tools to study noncoding RNA function. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a simple and reliable approach to locate RNAs in any cell type. Intracellular localization of RNA using FISH (RNA-FISH) requires resolution at the single cell and single molecule level which can be achieved using fluorescent-labeled nucleic acid antisense probes. Sequential Tagged and Intertwined oligodeoxyribonucleotide Complex (FISH-STIC) probes are a straightforward means for laboratories to design their own FISH probes that can be synthesized commercially. Here we provide a detailed protocol for applying FISH-STIC probes for in situ hybridization on cultured cells as a convenient and flexible method for localizing individual RNAs with many fluorophores using fluorescence microscopy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John R Sinnamon
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Markey FB, Ruezinsky W, Tyagi S, Batish M. Fusion FISH imaging: single-molecule detection of gene fusion transcripts in situ. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93488. [PMID: 24675777 PMCID: PMC3968151 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Double-stranded DNA breaks occur on a regular basis in the human genome as a consequence of genotoxic stress and errors during replication. Usually these breaks are rapidly and faithfully repaired, but occasionally different chromosomes, or different regions of the same chromosome, are fused to each other. Some of these aberrant chromosomal translocations yield functional recombinant genes, which have been implicated as the cause of a number of lymphomas, leukemias, sarcomas, and solid tumors. Reliable methods are needed for the in situ detection of the transcripts encoded by these recombinant genes. We have developed just such a method, utilizing single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (sm-FISH), in which approximately 50 short fluorescent probes bind to adjacent sites on the same mRNA molecule, rendering each target mRNA molecule visible as a diffraction-limited spot in a fluorescence microscope. Utilizing this method, gene fusion transcripts are detected with two differently colored probe sets, each specific for one of the two recombinant segments of a target mRNA; enabling the fusion transcripts to be seen in the microscope as distinct spots that fluoresce in both colors. We demonstrate this method by detecting the BCR-ABL fusion transcripts that occur in chronic myeloid leukemia cells, and by detecting the EWSR1-FLI1 fusion transcripts that occur in Ewing's sarcoma cells. This technology should pave the way for accurate in situ typing of many cancers that are associated with, or caused by, fusion transcripts.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- DNA Breaks, Double-Stranded
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/analysis
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/genetics
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Gene Fusion
- Humans
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence/methods
- K562 Cells
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/diagnosis
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/genetics
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/metabolism
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Oligonucleotides/chemical synthesis
- Oligonucleotides/metabolism
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/analysis
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/genetics
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/metabolism
- Sarcoma, Ewing/diagnosis
- Sarcoma, Ewing/genetics
- Sarcoma, Ewing/metabolism
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatu Badiane Markey
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - William Ruezinsky
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Sanjay Tyagi
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Mona Batish
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|