Forced isoform switching of Neat1_1 to Neat1_2 leads to the loss of Neat1_1 and the hyperformation of paraspeckles but does not affect the development and growth of mice

Emerging Role of Long, Non-Coding RNA Nuclear-Enriched Abundant Transcript 1 in Stress- and Immune-Related Diseases

Long, non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNAs exceeding 200 nucleotides in length, lacking the ability to be translated into proteins. Over the past few decades, an increasing number of publications have established lncRNAs as potent regulators in a broad spectrum of diseases. They modulate the expression of critical genes by affecting transcription, post-transcription, translation, and protein modification. This regulation frequently involves the interaction of lncRNAs with various molecules, such as proteins, RNA, and DNA. lncRNAs are involved in diseases where stress is a significant factor. In recent years, lncRNAs have been identified as regulators of both innate and adaptive immune responses, playing significant roles in the onset and progression of diseases. Additionally, lncRNAs hold potential as biomarkers or therapeutic targets for numerous stress- and immune-related diseases. lncRNA nuclear-enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) is a notable example. This review consolidates the latest findings about the role of lncRNA NEAT1 in stress response and immune cell function in non-cancer diseases. It summarizes studies on NEAT1 regulating stress response, both innate and adaptive immunity, and its potential as a biomarker and therapeutic target for stress- and immune-related diseases.

Long non-coding RNAs as therapeutic targets in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and clinical application

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a major global health burden, often associated with poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), a diverse group of non-coding RNA molecules > 200 nucleotides in length, have emerged as critical regulators in the pathogenesis of HNSCC. This review summarizes the mechanisms through which certain lncRNAs regulate chromatin modification, mRNA splicing, and interactions with RNA-binding proteins and contribute to the development and progression of HNSCC. Interaction of lncRNAs with key oncogenic pathways, such as PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin, highlights their importance in tumor progression. The role of lncRNAs, such as ELDR, MALAT1, NEAT1, HOTAIR, and UCA1, which promote cell proliferation, metastasis, immune evasion, and therapy resistance is discussed. Moreover, several lncRNAs are being evaluated in clinical trials for their potential as biomarkers, reflecting their clinical significance. We further address the challenges and opportunities for targeting lncRNA therapeutically, highlighting the promise of lncRNA-based interventions for personalized cancer treatment. Gaining insight into the function of lncRNAs in HNSCC could pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies to potentially improve patient outcomes.

Mechanism of action of lncRNA-NEAT1 in immune diseases

NEAT1, a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), is involved in assembling nuclear paraspeckles that have been found to impact various immune-related diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, allergic diseases, cancer immunity, sepsis, etc. In immune-related diseases, lncRNA-NEAT1 affects the activation, proliferation, and differentiation process of immune cells by interacting with transcription factors and miRNA (MicroRNA) to regulate an expression level in immune-related genes. It can also regulate the apoptosis and autophagy processes of immune cells by regulating inflammatory responses, interacting with apoptosis-related proteins, or regulating the expression of autophagy-related genes, thereby regulating the development of immune-related diseases. In recent years, a large number of researchers have found that the abnormal expression of lncRNA-NEAT1 has a great impact on the onset and progression of immune diseases, such as innate immunity after viral infection and the humoral immunity of T lymphocytes. In this paper, the specific mechanism of action and the function of lncRNA-NEAT1 in different immune-related diseases are sorted out and analyzed, to furnish a theoretical foundation for the study of the mechanism of action of immune cells.

Isoform balance of the long noncoding RNA NEAT1 is regulated by the RNA-binding protein QKI, governs the glioma transcriptome, and impacts cell migration

The long noncoding RNA nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1) is involved in a variety of human cancers. Two overlapping NEAT1 isoforms, NEAT1_1 and NEAT1_2, are produced through mutually exclusive alternative 3' end formation. Previous studies extensively investigated NEAT1 dysregulation in tumors, but often failed to achieve distinct quantification of the two NEAT1 isoforms. Moreover, molecular mechanisms governing the biogenesis of NEAT1 isoforms and the functional impacts of their dysregulation in tumorigenesis remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed an isoform-specific quantification assay and found differential dysregulation of NEAT1 isoforms in patient-derived glioblastoma multiforme cells. We further showed usage of the NEAT1 proximal polyadenylation site (PAS) is a critical mechanism that controls glioma NEAT1 isoform production. CRISPR-Cas9-mediated PAS deletion reduced NEAT1_1 and reciprocally increased NEAT1_2, which enhanced nuclear paraspeckle formation in human glioma cells. Moreover, the utilization of the NEAT1 PAS is facilitated by the RNA-binding protein quaking (QKI), which binds to the proximal QKI recognition elements. Functionally, we identified transcriptomic changes and altered biological pathways caused by NEAT1 isoform imbalance in glioma cells, including the pathway for the regulation of cell migration. Finally, we demonstrated the forced increase of NEAT1_2 upon NEAT1 PAS deletion is responsible for driving glioma cell migration and promoting the expression of genes implicated in the regulation of cell migration. Together, our studies uncovered a novel mechanism that regulates NEAT1 isoforms and their functional impacts on the glioma transcriptome, which affects pathological pathways of glioma, represented by migration.

The essential role of architectural noncoding RNA Neat1 in cold-induced beige adipocyte differentiation in mice

Neat1 is an architectural RNA that provides the structural basis for nuclear bodies known as paraspeckles. Although the assembly processes by which Neat1 organizes paraspeckle components are well-documented, the physiological functions of Neat1 are not yet fully understood. This is partly because Neat1 knockout (KO) mice, lacking paraspeckles, do not exhibit overt phenotypes under normal laboratory conditions. During our search for conditions that elicit clear phenotypes in Neat1 KO mice, we discovered that the differentiation of beige adipocytes-inducible thermogenic cells that emerge upon cold exposure-is severely impaired in these mutant mice. Neat1_2, the architectural isoform of Neat1, is transiently upregulated during the early stages of beige adipocyte differentiation, coinciding with increased paraspeckle formation. Genes with altered expression during beige adipocyte differentiation typically cluster at specific chromosomal locations, some of which move closer to paraspeckles upon cold exposure. These observations suggest that paraspeckles might coordinate the regulation of these gene clusters by controlling the activity of certain transcriptional condensates that coregulate multiple genes. We propose that our findings highlight a potential role for Neat1 and paraspeckles in modulating chromosomal organization and gene expression, potentially crucial processes for the differentiation of beige adipocytes.

CSTF3 contributes to platinum resistance in ovarian cancer through alternative polyadenylation of lncRNA NEAT1 and generating the short isoform NEAT1_1

Platinum-based chemotherapy is the standard postoperative adjuvant treatment for ovarian cancer (OC). Despite the initial response to chemotherapy, 85% of advanced OC patients will have recurrent disease. Relapsed disease and platinum resistance are the major causes of death in OC patients. In this study, we compared the global regulation of alternative polyadenylation (APA) in platinum-resistant and platinum-sensitive tissues of OC patients by analyzing a set of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from public databases and found that platinum-resistant patients exhibited global 3' untranslated region (UTR) shortening due to the different usage of polyadenylation sites (PASs). The APA regulator CSTF3 was the most significantly upregulated gene in epithelial cells of platinum-resistant OC. CSTF3 knockdown increased the sensitivity of OC cells to platinum. The lncRNA NEAT1 has two isoforms, short (NEAT1_1) and long (NEAT1_2) transcript, because of the APA processing in 3'UTR. We found that CSTF3 knockdown reduced the usage of NEAT1 proximal PAS to lengthen the transcript and facilitate the expression of NEAT1_2. Downregulation of the expression of NEAT1 (NEAT1_1/_2), but not only NEAT1_2, also increased the sensitivity of OC cells to platinum. Overexpressed NEAT1_1 reversed the platinum resistance of OC cells after knocking down CSTF3 expression. Furthermore, downregulated expression of CSTF3 and NEAT1_1, rather than NEAT1_2, was positively correlated with inactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in OC cells. Together, our findings revealed a novel mechanism of APA regulation in platinum-resistant OC. CSTF3 directly bound downstream of the NEAT1 proximal PAS to generate the short isoform NEAT1_1 and was conducive to platinum resistance, which provides a potential biomarker and therapeutic strategy for platinum-resistant OC patients.

Deep Conservation and Unexpected Evolutionary History of Neighboring lncRNAs MALAT1 and NEAT1

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have begun to receive overdue attention for their regulatory roles in gene expression and other cellular processes. Although most lncRNAs are lowly expressed and tissue-specific, notable exceptions include MALAT1 and its genomic neighbor NEAT1, two highly and ubiquitously expressed oncogenes with roles in transcriptional regulation and RNA splicing. Previous studies have suggested that NEAT1 is found only in mammals, while MALAT1 is present in all gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates) except birds. Here we show that these assertions are incomplete, likely due to the challenges associated with properly identifying these two lncRNAs. Using phylogenetic analysis and structure-aware annotation of publicly available genomic and RNA-seq coverage data, we show that NEAT1 is a common feature of tetrapod genomes except birds and squamates. Conversely, we identify MALAT1 in representative species of all major gnathostome clades, including birds. Our in-depth examination of MALAT1, NEAT1, and their genomic context in a wide range of vertebrate species allows us to reconstruct the series of events that led to the formation of the locus containing these genes in taxa from cartilaginous fish to mammals. This evolutionary history includes the independent loss of NEAT1 in birds and squamates, since NEAT1 is found in the closest living relatives of both clades (crocodilians and tuataras, respectively). These data clarify the origins and relationships of MALAT1 and NEAT1 and highlight an opportunity to study the change and continuity in lncRNA structure and function over deep evolutionary time.

ILF3 prion-like domain regulates gene expression and fear memory under chronic stress

The prion-like domain (PrLD) is a class of intrinsically disordered regions. Although its propensity to form condensates has been studied in the context of neurodegenerative diseases, the physiological role of PrLD remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of PrLD in the RNA-binding protein NFAR2, generated by a splicing variant of the Ilf3 gene. Removal of the PrLD in mice did not impair the function of NFAR2 required for survival, but did affect the responses to chronic water immersion and restraint stress (WIRS). The PrLD was required for WIRS-sensitive nuclear localization of NFAR2 and WIRS-induced changes in mRNA expression and translation in the amygdala, a fear-related brain region. Consistently, the PrLD conferred resistance to WIRS in fear-associated memory formation. Our study provides insights into the PrLD-dependent role of NFAR2 for chronic stress adaptation in the brain.

Paraspeckles interact with SWI/SNF subunit ARID1B to regulate transcription and splicing

Paraspeckles are subnuclear RNA-protein structures that are implicated in important processes including cellular stress response, differentiation, and cancer progression. However, it is unclear how paraspeckles impart their physiological effect at the molecular level. Through biochemical analyses, we show that paraspeckles interact with the SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complex. This is specifically mediated by the direct interaction of the long-non-coding RNA NEAT1 of the paraspeckles with ARID1B of the cBAF-type SWI/SNF complex. Strikingly, ARID1B depletion, in addition to resulting in loss of interaction with the SWI/SNF complex, decreases the binding of paraspeckle proteins to chromatin modifiers, transcription factors, and histones. Functionally, the loss of ARID1B and NEAT1 influences the transcription and the alternative splicing of a common set of genes. Our findings reveal that dynamic granules such as the paraspeckles may leverage the specificity of epigenetic modifiers to impart their regulatory effect, thus providing a molecular basis for their function.

RBM10 regulates alternative splicing of lncRNA Neat1 to inhibit the invasion and metastasis of NSCLC

Background

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for more than 85% of the total cases with lung cancer. NSCLC is characterized by easy metastasis, which often spreads to bones, brains and livers. RNA-binding motif protein 10 (RBM10) is an alternative splicing (AS) regulator frequently mutated in NSCLC. We found that there were multiple peak binding sites between RBM10 and long non-coding RNA nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1 (LncRNA Neat1) by crosslinking-immunprecipitation and high-throughput sequencing (Clip-Seq). LncRNA Neat1 plays an indispensable role in promoting cancer in a variety of tumors and produces two splicing variants: Neat1_1 and Neat1_2. This study aims to explore the mechanism of RBM10 and LncRNA Neat1 in invasion and metastasis of NSCLC.

Methods

Through histological and cytological experiments, we assessed the expression level of RBM10 protein expression. The interaction between RBM10 and Neat1 was evaluated via Clip-Seq and RNA immunoprecipitation assay. The effect of RBM10 on Neat1 and its splicing variants was identified by RT-qPCR. The effect of RBM10 and Neat1 on invasive and metastasis phenotypes of NSCLC was analyzed using transwell invasion assay and scratch test. Additionally, downstream signaling pathway of RBM10 were identified by immunofluorescence and western blot.

Results

RBM10 exhibited low levels of expression in NSCLC tissues and cells. RBM10 inhibited the invasion and metastasis of NSCLC and recruited Neat1 and Neat1_2. Overexpression of RBM10 simultaneously inhibited Neat1 and Neat1_2, and promoted the expression of Neat1_1. On the other hand, silencing RBM10 promoted Neat1 and Neat1_2, and inhibited the expression of Neat1_1. From this, we concluded that RBM10 regulated AS of Neat1, and the tumor-promoting effect of Neat1 was mainly attributed to Neat1_2. RBM10 had a negative correlation with Neat1_2. In addition, RBM10 upregulated the expression of PTEN and downregulated the phosphorylation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR through Neat1_2, which ultimately inhibited the invasion and metastasis of NSCLC.

Conclusion

The RBM10 regulated AS of Neat1 to cause the imbalance of Neat1_1 and Neat1_2, and RBM10 suppressed the activation of the PTEN/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signal by downregulating Neat1_2, finally affected the invasion and metastasis of NSCLC.

Harnessing introns to monitor gene expression

A number of new technologies have utilized synthetic RNAs which leverage the cell’s RNA splicing machinery to drive expression of gene products. Now a new study reports a technique to dynamically and non-invasively monitor gene expression by embedding reporters within introns contained in the parent gene.

Species-specific formation of paraspeckles in intestinal epithelium revealed by characterization of NEAT1 in naked mole-rat

Paraspeckles are mammalian-specific nuclear bodies built on the long noncoding RNA NEAT1_2 The molecular mechanisms of paraspeckle formation have been mainly studied using human or mouse cells, and it is not known if the same molecular components are involved in the formation of paraspeckles in other mammalian species. We thus investigated the expression pattern of NEAT1_2 in naked mole-rats (nNEAT1_2), which exhibit extreme longevity and lower susceptibility to cancer. In the intestine, nNEAT1_2 is widely expressed along the entire intestinal epithelium, which is different from the expression of mNeat1_2 that is restricted to the cells of the distal tip in mice. Notably, the expression of FUS, a FET family RNA binding protein, essential for the formation of paraspeckles both in humans and mice, was absent in the distal part of the intestinal epithelium in naked mole-rats. Instead, mRNAs of other FET family proteins EWSR1 and TAF15 were expressed in the distal region. Exogenous expression of these proteins in Fus-deficient murine embryonic fibroblast cells rescued the formation of paraspeckles. These observations suggest that nNEAT1_2 recruits a different set of RNA binding proteins in a cell type-specific manner during the formation of paraspeckles in different organisms.

A TET1-PSPC1-Neat1 molecular axis modulates PRC2 functions in controlling stem cell bivalency

TET1 maintains hypomethylation at bivalent promoters through its catalytic activity in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). However, TET1 catalytic activity-independent function in regulating bivalent genes is not well understood. Using a proteomics approach, we map the TET1 interactome in ESCs and identify PSPC1 as a TET1 partner. Genome-wide location analysis reveals that PSPC1 functionally associates with TET1 and Polycomb repressive complex-2 (PRC2). We establish that PSPC1 and TET1 repress, and the lncRNA Neat1 activates, bivalent gene expression. In ESCs, Neat1 is preferentially bound to PSPC1 alongside its PRC2 association at bivalent promoters. During the ESC-to-epiblast-like stem cell (EpiLC) transition, PSPC1 and TET1 maintain PRC2 chromatin occupancy at bivalent gene promoters, while Neat1 facilitates the activation of certain bivalent genes by promoting PRC2 binding to their mRNAs. Our study demonstrates a TET1-PSPC1-Neat1 molecular axis that modulates PRC2-binding affinity to chromatin and bivalent gene transcripts in controlling stem cell bivalency.

Expression and functions of long non-coding RNA NEAT1 and isoforms in breast cancer

NEAT1 is a highly abundant nuclear architectural long non-coding RNA. There are two overlapping NEAT1 isoforms, NEAT1_1 and NEAT1_2, of which the latter is an essential scaffold for the assembly of a class of nuclear ribonucleoprotein bodies called paraspeckles. Paraspeckle formation is elevated by a wide variety of cellular stressors and in certain developmental processes, either through transcriptional upregulation of the NEAT1 gene or through a switch from NEAT1_1 to NEAT1_2 isoform production. In such conditions, paraspeckles modulate cellular processes by sequestering proteins or RNA molecules. NEAT1 is abnormally expressed in many cancers and a growing body of evidence suggests that, in many cases, high NEAT1 levels are associated with therapy resistance and poor clinical outcome. Here we review the current knowledge of NEAT1 expression and functions in breast cancer, highlighting its established role in postnatal mammary gland development. We will discuss possible isoform-specific roles of NEAT1_1 and NEAT1_2 in different breast cancer subtypes, which critically needs to be considered when studying NEAT1 and breast cancer.

NEAT1 is essential for metabolic changes that promote breast cancer growth and metastasis

Accelerated glycolysis is the main metabolic change observed in cancer, but the underlying molecular mechanisms and their role in cancer progression remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the deletion of the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Neat1 in MMTV-PyVT mice profoundly impairs tumor initiation, growth, and metastasis, specifically switching off the penultimate step of glycolysis. Mechanistically, NEAT1 directly binds and forms a scaffold bridge for the assembly of PGK1/PGAM1/ENO1 complexes and thereby promotes substrate channeling for high and efficient glycolysis. Notably, NEAT1 is upregulated in cancer patients and correlates with high levels of these complexes, and genetic and pharmacological blockade of penultimate glycolysis ablates NEAT1-dependent tumorigenesis. Finally, we demonstrate that Pinin mediates glucose-stimulated nuclear export of NEAT1, through which it exerts isoform-specific and paraspeckle-independent functions. These findings establish a direct role for NEAT1 in regulating tumor metabolism, provide new insights into the Warburg effect, and identify potential targets for therapy.

The Role of Long Non-coding RNA, Nuclear Enriched Abundant Transcript 1 (NEAT1) in Cancer and Other Pathologies

Nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1), consisting of two kinds of lncRNAs of 3.7 kB NEAT1-1 and 23 kB NEAT1-2, can be highly expressed in organs and tissues such as the ovary, prostate, colon, and pancreas, and is involved in paraspeckle formation and mRNA editing and gene expression. Therefore, NEAT1 is a potential biomarker for the treatment of a variety of diseases, which may be caused by two factors (isoforms of NEAT1 and NEAT1 sponging miRNA as ceRNA). However, there is still much confusion about the mechanism and downstream effector between the abnormal expression of NEAT1 and various diseases. This review summarizes recent research progress on NEAT1 in cancer and other pathologies and provides a more reliable theoretical basis for the treatment of related diseases.

NEAT1 lncRNA and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a representative neurological disease that is known to devastate entire motor neurons within a period of just a few years. Discoveries of the specific pathologies of relevant RNA-binding proteins, including TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) and fused in sarcoma/translocated in liposarcoma (FUS/TLS), and the causative genes of both familial and sporadic ALS have provided crucial information that could lead to a cure. In recent ALS research the GGGGCC-repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene was identified as one of the most important pathological findings, suggesting the significance of both nuclear dysfunction due to dipeptide repeat proteins (DPRs) and RNA toxicity (such as pathological alterations of non-coding RNAs). In research on model animals carrying ALS-related molecules, the determination of whether a factor is protective or toxic has been controversial. Herein, we review the findings regarding NEAT1 RNA and C9orf72 GGGGCC repeats associated with ALS, from the viewpoint of conversion from the protective stage in the nucleus in early-phase ALS to late-phase induction of cell death. This review will provide insights for the development of RNA effectors as novel ALS treatments.

ArcRNAs and the formation of nuclear bodies

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have long been collectively and passively defined as transcripts that do not encode proteins. However, extensive functional studies performed over the last decade have enabled the classification of lncRNAs into multiple categories according to their functions and/or molecular properties. Architectual RNAs (arcRNAs) are a group of lncRNAs that serve as architectural components of submicron-scale cellular bodies or nonmembranous organelles, which are composed of specific sets of proteins and nucleic acids involved in particular molecular processes. In this review, we focus on arcRNAs that function in the nucleus, which provide a structural basis for the formation of nuclear bodies, nonmembranous organelles in the cell nucleus. We will summarize the current list of arcRNAs and proteins associated with classic and more recently discovered nuclear bodies and discuss general rules that govern the formation of nuclear bodies, emphasizing weak multivalent interactions mediated by innately flexible biomolecules.

eNEMAL, an enhancer RNA transcribed from a distal MALAT1 enhancer, promotes NEAT1 long isoform expression

Emerging evidence has shown that active enhancers are abundantly transcribed, generating long non-coding RNAs, called enhancer RNAs (eRNAs). While putative eRNAs are often observed from RNA sequencing, the roles of most eRNAs remain largely unknown. Previously, we identified putative enhancer regions at the MALAT1 locus that form chromatin-chromatin interactions under hypoxia, and one of these enhancers is located about 30 kb downstream of the NEAT1 gene and -20 kb upstream of the MALAT1 gene (MALAT1–20 kb enhancer). Here, we report that a novel eRNA, named eRNA of the NEAT1-MALAT1-Locus (eNEMAL), is transcribed from the MALAT1–20 kb enhancer and conserved in primates. We found that eNEMAL is upregulated in response to hypoxia in multiple breast cancer cell lines, but not in non-tumorigenic MCF10A cells. Overexpression and knockdown of eNEMAL revealed that alteration of eNEMAL level does not affect MALAT1 expression. Instead, we found that eNEMAL upregulates the long isoform of NEAT1 (NEAT1_2) without increasing the total NEAT1 transcript level in MCF7 breast cancer cells, suggesting that eNEMAL has a repressive effect on the 3’-end polyadenylation process required for generating the short isoform of NEAT1 (NEAT1_1). Altogether, we demonstrated that an eRNA transcribed from a MALAT1 enhancer regulates NEAT1 isoform expression, implicating the MALAT1–20 kb enhancer and its transcript eNEMAL in co-regulation of MALAT1 and NEAT1 in response to hypoxia in breast cancer cells.

Genome-wide screening of circadian and non-circadian impact of Neat1 genetic deletion

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Neat1 deletion affects numerous circadian and non-circadian genes.

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Neat1 deletion causes loss, modification or acquisition of gene circadian pattern.

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Paraspeckles contribute significantly to the circadian transcriptome.

The functions of the long non-coding RNA, Nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1 (Neat1), are poorly understood. Neat1 is required for the formation of paraspeckles, but its respective paraspeckle-dependent or independent functions are unknown. Several studies including ours reported that Neat1 is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms. We characterized the impact of Neat1 genetic deletion in a rat pituitary cell line. The mRNAs whose circadian expression pattern or expression level is regulated by Neat1 were identified after high-throughput RNA sequencing of the circadian transcriptome of wild-type cells compared to cells in which Neat1 was deleted by CRISPR/Cas9. The numerous RNAs affected by Neat1 deletion were found to be circadian or non-circadian, targets or non-targets of paraspeckles, and to be associated with many key biological processes showing that Neat1, in interaction with the circadian system or independently, could play crucial roles in key physiological functions through diverse mechanisms.

LNCcation: lncRNA localization and function

Subcellular localization of RNAs has gained attention in recent years as a prevalent phenomenon that influences numerous cellular processes. This is also evident for the large and relatively novel class of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). Because lncRNAs are defined as RNA transcripts >200 nucleotides that do not encode protein, they are themselves the functional units, making their subcellular localization critical to their function. The discovery of tens of thousands of lncRNAs and the cumulative evidence involving them in almost every cellular activity render assessment of their subcellular localization essential to fully understanding their biology. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of lncRNA subcellular localization, factors controlling their localization, emerging themes, including the role of lncRNA isoforms and the involvement of lncRNAs in phase separation bodies, and the implications of lncRNA localization on their function and on cellular behavior. We also discuss gaps in the current knowledge as well as opportunities that these provide for novel avenues of investigation.

NEAT1 on the Field of Parkinson's Disease: Offense, Defense, or a Player on the Bench?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide. Considering the devastating symptoms, high prevalence, and lack of definitive diagnostic test, there is an urgent need to identify possible biomarkers and new therapeutic targets. Genes identified and/or proposed to be linked to PD encode proteins that fulfill diverse roles in cellular functions. There is a growing interest in identifying common traits which lead to the disease. Long non-coding RNAs have recently emerged as possible regulatory hubs of complex molecular changes affecting PD development. Among them, NEAT1 has attracted particular interest. It is a major component and the initiator of nuclear paraspeckles, thus regulating transcription and modifying protein functions. This review summarizes data available on the role of NEAT1 in PD. NEAT1 upregulation in PD has repeatedly been reported, however, whether this is part of a protective or a damaging mechanism is still a topic of debate. It has been proposed that NEAT1 propagates PD via its interaction with PINK1 and several micro RNAs and by modulating SNCA expression. On the other hand, findings of NEAT1 acting as a bona fide LRRK2 inhibitor argue for its protective role. These contradictory results could be due to the different disease models implemented. This calls attention to the difficulties posed by the complex patho-mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders and the limitations of disease models. However, the potential of NEAT1 as a biomarker and as a therapeutic target for PD highly warrants further research to elucidate its exact role in this neurodegenerative disorder.

Functional non-coding RNAs in vascular diseases

Recently, advances in genomic technology such as RNA sequencing and genome‐wide profiling have enabled the identification of considerable numbers of non‐coding RNAs (ncRNAs). MicroRNAs have been studied for decades, leading to the identification of those with disease‐causing and/or protective effects in vascular disease. Although other ncRNAs such as long ncRNAs have not been fully described yet, recent studies have indicated their important functions in the development of vascular diseases. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms and functions of ncRNAs, focusing on microRNAs, circular RNAs and long ncRNAs in vascular diseases.

Expression level and diagnostic value of exosomal NEAT1/miR-204/MMP-9 in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction

Acute myocardium infarction (AMI) is one of the main causes of cardiovascular death, and timely intervention and diagnosis are essential. Owing to the irreversible apoptosis and death of myocardial cells, which ultimately causes heart failure, the problem of myocardial repair after myocardial infarction needs to be urgently addressed. Exosomes can act as messengers between cells, delivering large amounts of proteins, RNA, and lipids to receptor cells, and regulating target cell functions. Studies have shown that exosomes can repair infarcted myocardium. We aimed to investigate the relationship between long non-coding RNA NEAT1 in serum exosomes of patients and AMI and its underlying mechanism. Subjects were divided into control, UA, and STEMI groups. RNA was extracted from the serum exosomes, and the expressions of lncRNA NEAT1 and miR-204 were detected by qRT-PCR. MMP-9 was detected by western blot, Spearman test was used to analyze the correlation among the three. Logistic regression and Receiver-operating characteristic curve (ROC) were used to evaluate the prediction of acute myocardial infarction. The expressions of NEAT1 and MMP-9 in serum exosomes of patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction were up-regulated and positively correlated, miR-204 expression was down-regulated, there were no correlations between miR-204 with NEAT1, or MMP-9. Exosomal NEAT1, miR-204, and MMP-9 displayed potent biomarkers for diagnosis of acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.

LncAS2Cancer: a comprehensive database for alternative splicing of lncRNAs across human cancers

Accumulating studies demonstrated that the roles of lncRNAs for tumorigenesis were isoform-dependent and their aberrant splicing patterns in cancers contributed to function specificity. However, there is no existing database focusing on cancer-related alternative splicing of lncRNAs. Here, we developed a comprehensive database called LncAS2Cancer, which collected 5335 bulk RNA sequencing and 1826 single-cell RNA sequencing samples, covering over 30 cancer types. By applying six state-of-the-art splicing algorithms, 50 859 alternative splicing events for 8 splicing types were identified and deposited in the database. In addition, the database contained the following information: (i) splicing patterns of lncRNAs under seven different conditions, such as gene interference, which facilitated to infer potential regulators; (ii) annotation information derived from eight sources and manual curation, to understand the functional impact of affected sequences; (iii) survival analysis to explore potential biomarkers; as well as (iv) a suite of tools to browse, search, visualize and download interesting information. LncAS2Cancer could not only confirm the known cancer-associated lncRNA isoforms but also indicate novel ones. Using the data deposited in LncAS2Cancer, we compared gene model and transcript overlap between lncRNAs and protein-coding genes and discusses how these factors, along with sequencing depth, affected the interpretation of splicing signals. Based on recurrent signals and potential confounders, we proposed a reliable score to prioritize splicing events for further elucidation. Together, with the broad collection of lncRNA splicing patterns and annotation, LncAS2Cancer will provide important new insights into the diverse functional roles of lncRNA isoforms in human cancers. LncAS2Cancer is freely available at https://lncrna2as.cd120.com/.

Integrator restrains paraspeckles assembly by promoting isoform switching of the lncRNA NEAT1

RNA 3' end processing provides a source of transcriptome diversification which affects various (patho)-physiological processes. A prime example is the transcript isoform switch that leads to the read-through expression of the long non-coding RNA NEAT1_2, at the expense of the shorter polyadenylated transcript NEAT1_1. NEAT1_2 is required for assembly of paraspeckles (PS), nuclear bodies that protect cancer cells from oncogene-induced replication stress and chemotherapy. Searching for proteins that modulate this event, we identified factors involved in the 3' end processing of polyadenylated RNA and components of the Integrator complex. Perturbation experiments established that, by promoting the cleavage of NEAT1_2, Integrator forces NEAT1_2 to NEAT1_1 isoform switching and, thereby, restrains PS assembly. Consistently, low levels of Integrator subunits correlated with poorer prognosis of cancer patients exposed to chemotherapeutics. Our study establishes that Integrator regulates PS biogenesis and a link between Integrator, cancer biology, and chemosensitivity, which may be exploited therapeutically.

Architectural RNAs for Membraneless Nuclear Body Formation

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are fundamental regulators of various cellular processes. A subset of lncRNAs, termed architectural RNAs (arcRNAs), function in the formation and maintenance of phase-separated membraneless organelles in multiple eukaryotic species. These membraneless organelles represent an important type of compartmentalization in the crowded cellular environment and have several distinct features. The NEAT1_2 lncRNA is a well-characterized arcRNA that functions as an essential scaffold of paraspeckle nuclear bodies. Here, we describe the biogenesis of paraspeckles on arcRNAs through phase separation, focusing on the specific functions of multiple NEAT1_2 RNA domains and their partner RNA-binding proteins. Finally, we present an updated model of paraspeckle formation and discuss future perspectives of research into arcRNA-instructed architectures of phase-separated nuclear bodies.