Splicing of designer exons reveals unexpected complexity in pre-mRNA splicing

RNA sequencing combined with whole-exome sequencing revealed familial homocystinemia due to MTHFR deficiency and its complex splicing events

5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR, MIM #607093) is a key enzyme in the folate cycle that catalyzes the conversion of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate (5,10-MTHF) to 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-methylTHF), a critical step for the remethylation of homocysteine to methionine. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disease and the most common congenital defect in folate metabolism. A deficiency in MTHFR results in elevated serum homocysteine levels. In this study, we evaluated a patient diagnosed with epilepsy and elevated homocysteine levels, who carried compound heterozygous variants c.781-6G>A and c.1316T>C in the MTHFR gene. We primarily focused on the unreported non-canonical splicing variants c.781-6G>A in this patient and identified several complex splicing variant patterns. The c.1316T>C variant results in a substitution of leucine at position 439 with proline and this variant has been previously reported and is considered pathogenic. Our study mainly utilized RNA-seq and TA cloning to reveal the complex splicing patterns exhibited by this non-canonical splicing variant. Additionally, this finding was confirmed through in vitro experiments. This provided deeper insights into the underlying reasons for the patient's disease manifestation. Furthermore, despite apparently normal circulating folate and vitamin B12, we found two family members to exhibit mildly elevated homocysteine levels. While these individuals did not present overt clinical symptoms, the potential harm associated with high homocysteine levels should not be overlooked. This study not only provides additional genetic evidence for the clinical diagnosis of the patient but also broadens our understanding of the clinical manifestations of MTHFR deficiency.

RNA molecules display distinctive organization at nuclear speckles

RNA molecules often play critical roles in assisting the formation of membraneless organelles in eukaryotic cells. Yet, little is known about the organization of RNAs within membraneless organelles. Here, using super-resolution imaging and nuclear speckles as a model system, we demonstrate that different sequence domains of RNA transcripts exhibit differential spatial distributions within speckles. Specifically, we image transcripts containing a region enriched in binding motifs of serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins and another region enriched in binding motifs of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs). We show that these transcripts localize to the outer shell of speckles, with the SR motif-rich region localizing closer to the speckle center relative to the hnRNP motif-rich region. Further, we identify that this intra-speckle RNA organization is driven by the strength of RNA-protein interactions inside and outside speckles. Our results hint at novel functional roles of nuclear speckles and likely other membraneless organelles in organizing RNA substrates for biochemical reactions.

Deciphering RNA splicing logic with interpretable machine learning

Machine learning methods, particularly neural networks trained on large datasets, are transforming how scientists approach scientific discovery and experimental design. However, current state-of-the-art neural networks are limited by their uninterpretability: Despite their excellent accuracy, they cannot describe how they arrived at their predictions. Here, using an "interpretable-by-design" approach, we present a neural network model that provides insights into RNA splicing, a fundamental process in the transfer of genomic information into functional biochemical products. Although we designed our model to emphasize interpretability, its predictive accuracy is on par with state-of-the-art models. To demonstrate the model's interpretability, we introduce a visualization that, for any given exon, allows us to trace and quantify the entire decision process from input sequence to output splicing prediction. Importantly, the model revealed uncharacterized components of the splicing logic, which we experimentally validated. This study highlights how interpretable machine learning can advance scientific discovery.

Regulation of pre-mRNA splicing: roles in physiology and disease, and therapeutic prospects

The removal of introns from mRNA precursors and its regulation by alternative splicing are key for eukaryotic gene expression and cellular function, as evidenced by the numerous pathologies induced or modified by splicing alterations. Major recent advances have been made in understanding the structures and functions of the splicing machinery, in the description and classification of physiological and pathological isoforms and in the development of the first therapies for genetic diseases based on modulation of splicing. Here, we review this progress and discuss important remaining challenges, including predicting splice sites from genomic sequences, understanding the variety of molecular mechanisms and logic of splicing regulation, and harnessing this knowledge for probing gene function and disease aetiology and for the design of novel therapeutic approaches.

Tapping the potential of synthetic riboswitches: reviewing the versatility of the tetracycline aptamer

Synthetic riboswitches are a versatile class of regulatory elements that are becoming increasingly established in synthetic biology applications. They are characterized by their compact size and independence from auxiliary protein factors. While naturally occurring riboswitches were mostly discovered in bacteria, synthetic riboswitches have been designed for all domains of life. Published design strategies far exceed the number of riboswitches found in nature. A core element of any riboswitch is a binding domain, called an aptamer, which is characterized by high specificity and affinity for its ligand. Aptamers can be selected de novo, allowing the design of synthetic riboswitches against a broad spectrum of targets. The tetracycline aptamer has proven to be well suited for riboswitch engineering. Since its selection, it has been used in a variety of applications and is considered to be well established and characterized. Using the tetracycline aptamer as an example, we aim to discuss a large variety of design approaches for synthetic riboswitch engineering and their application. We aim to demonstrate the versatility of riboswitches in general and the high potential of synthetic RNA devices for creating new solutions in both the scientific and medical fields.

Modeling splicing outcome by combining 5'ss strength and splicing regulatory elements

Correct pre-mRNA processing in higher eukaryotes vastly depends on splice site recognition. Beyond conserved 5'ss and 3'ss motifs, splicing regulatory elements (SREs) play a pivotal role in this recognition process. Here, we present in silico designed sequences with arbitrary a priori prescribed splicing regulatory HEXplorer properties that can be concatenated to arbitrary length without changing their regulatory properties. We experimentally validated in silico predictions in a massively parallel splicing reporter assay on more than 3000 sequences and exemplarily identified some SRE binding proteins. Aiming at a unified 'functional splice site strength' encompassing both U1 snRNA complementarity and impact from neighboring SREs, we developed a novel RNA-seq based 5'ss usage landscape, mapping the competition of pairs of high confidence 5'ss and neighboring exonic GT sites along HBond and HEXplorer score coordinate axes on human fibroblast and endothelium transcriptome datasets. These RNA-seq data served as basis for a logistic 5'ss usage prediction model, which greatly improved discrimination between strong but unused exonic GT sites and annotated highly used 5'ss. Our 5'ss usage landscape offers a unified view on 5'ss and SRE neighborhood impact on splice site recognition, and may contribute to improved mutation assessment in human genetics.

Processed pseudogene insertion in GLB1 causes Morquio B disease by altering intronic splicing regulatory landscape

Morquio B disease (MBD) is an ultra-rare lysosomal storage disease, which represents the relatively mild form of GLB1-associated disorders. In this article, we present the unique case of “pure” MBD associated with an insertion of the mobile genetic element from the class of retrotransposons. Using whole-genome sequencing (WGS), we identified an integration of the processed pseudogene NPM1 deep in the intron 5 of GLB1. The patient’s mRNA analysis and the detailed functional analysis revealed the underlying molecular genetic mechanism of pathogenesis, which is an alteration of the GLB1 normal splicing. By co-expression of minigenes and antisense splice-modulating oligonucleotides (ASMOs), we demonstrated that pseudogene-derived splicing regulatory motifs contributed to an activation of the cryptic exon located 36 bp upstream of the integration site. Blocking the cryptic exon with ASMOs incorporated in the modified U7 small nuclear RNA (modU7snRNA) almost completely restored the wild-type splicing in the model cell line, that could be further extended toward the personalized genetic therapy. To our knowledge, this is the second reported case of the processed pseudogene insertion for monogenic disorders. Our data emphasizes the unique role of WGS in identification of such rare and probably underrepresented in literature types of disease-associated genetic variants.

Identification of splice defects due to noncanonical splice site or deep-intronic variants in ABCA4

Pathogenic variants in the ATP-binding cassette transporter A4 (ABCA4) gene cause a continuum of retinal disease phenotypes, including Stargardt disease. Noncanonical splice site (NCSS) and deep-intronic variants constitute a large fraction of disease-causing alleles, defining the functional consequences of which remains a challenge. We aimed to determine the effect on splicing of nine previously reported or unpublished NCSS variants, one near exon splice variant and nine deep-intronic variants in ABCA4, using in vitro splice assays in human embryonic kidney 293T cells. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Sanger sequence analysis revealed splicing defects for 12 out of 19 variants. Four deep-intronic variants create pseudoexons or elongate the upstream exon. Furthermore, eight NCSS variants cause a partial deletion or skipping of one or more exons in messenger RNAs. Among the 12 variants, nine lead to premature stop codons and predicted truncated ABCA4 proteins. At least two deep-intronic variants affect splice enhancer and silencer motifs and, therefore, these conserved sequences should be carefully evaluated when predicting the outcome of NCSS and deep-intronic variants.

A small, portable RNA device for the control of exon skipping in mammalian cells

Splicing is an essential and highly regulated process in mammalian cells. We developed a synthetic riboswitch that efficiently controls alternative splicing of a cassette exon in response to the small molecule ligand tetracycline. The riboswitch was designed to control the accessibility of the 3' splice site by placing the latter inside the closing stem of a conformationally controlled tetracycline aptamer. In the presence of tetracycline, the cassette exon is skipped, whereas it is included in the ligand's absence. The design allows for an easy, context-independent integration of the regulatory device into any gene of interest. Portability of the device was shown through its functionality in four different systems: a synthetic minigene, a reporter gene and two endogenous genes. Furthermore, riboswitch functionality to control cellular signaling cascades was demonstrated by using it to specifically induce cell death through the conditionally controlled expression of CD20, which is a target in cancer therapy.

First estimate of the scale of canonical 5' splice site GT>GC variants capable of generating wild-type transcripts

It has long been known that canonical 5' splice site (5'SS) GT>GC variants may be compatible with normal splicing. However, to date, the actual scale of canonical 5'SSs capable of generating wild-type transcripts in the case of GT>GC substitutions remains unknown. Herein, combining data derived from a meta-analysis of 45 human disease-causing 5'SS GT>GC variants and a cell culture-based full-length gene splicing assay of 103 5'SS GT>GC substitutions, we estimate that ~15-18% of canonical GT 5'SSs retain their capacity to generate between 1% and 84% normal transcripts when GT is substituted by GC. We further demonstrate that the canonical 5'SSs in which substitution of GT by GC-generated normal transcripts exhibit stronger complementarity to the 5' end of U1 snRNA than those sites whose substitutions of GT by GC did not lead to the generation of normal transcripts. We also observed a correlation between the generation of wild-type transcripts and a milder than expected clinical phenotype but found that none of the available splicing prediction tools were capable of reliably distinguishing 5'SS GT>GC variants that generated wild-type transcripts from those that did not. Our findings imply that 5'SS GT>GC variants in human disease genes may not invariably be pathogenic.

Networks of mRNA Processing and Alternative Splicing Regulation in Health and Disease

mRNA processing events introduce an intricate layer of complexity into gene expression processes, supporting a tremendous level of diversification of the genome's coding and regulatory potential, particularly in vertebrate species. The recent development of massive parallel sequencing methods and their adaptation to the identification and quantification of different RNA species and the dynamics of mRNA metabolism and processing has generated an unprecedented view over the regulatory networks that are established at this level, which contribute to sustain developmental, tissue specific or disease specific gene expression programs. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the recent evolution of transcriptome profiling methods and the surprising insights that have emerged in recent years regarding distinct mRNA processing events - from the 5' end to the 3' end of the molecule.

Ranking noncanonical 5' splice site usage by genome-wide RNA-seq analysis and splicing reporter assays

Most human pathogenic mutations in 5' splice sites affect the canonical GT in positions +1 and +2, leading to noncanonical dinucleotides. On the other hand, noncanonical dinucleotides are observed under physiological conditions in ∼1% of all human 5'ss. It is therefore a challenging task to understand the pathogenic mutation mechanisms underlying the conditions under which noncanonical 5'ss are used. In this work, we systematically examined noncanonical 5' splice site selection, both experimentally using splicing competition reporters and by analyzing a large RNA-seq data set of 54 fibroblast samples from 27 subjects containing a total of 2.4 billion gapped reads covering 269,375 exon junctions. From both approaches, we consistently derived a noncanonical 5'ss usage ranking GC > TT > AT > GA > GG > CT. In our competition splicing reporter assay, noncanonical splicing was strictly dependent on the presence of upstream or downstream splicing regulatory elements (SREs), and changes in SREs could be compensated by variation of U1 snRNA complementarity in the competing 5'ss. In particular, we could confirm splicing at different positions (i.e., -1, +1, +5) of a splice site for all noncanonical dinucleotides "weaker" than GC. In our comprehensive RNA-seq data set analysis, noncanonical 5'ss were preferentially detected in weakly used exon junctions of highly expressed genes. Among high-confidence splice sites, they were 10-fold overrepresented in clusters with a neighboring, more frequently used 5'ss. Conversely, these more frequently used neighbors contained only the dinucleotides GT, GC, and TT, in accordance with the above ranking.

Activation of a cryptic 5' splice site reverses the impact of pathogenic splice site mutations in the spinal muscular atrophy gene

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by deletions or mutations of the Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1) gene coupled with predominant skipping of SMN2 exon 7. The only approved SMA treatment is an antisense oligonucleotide that targets the intronic splicing silencer N1 (ISS-N1), located downstream of the 5' splice site (5'ss) of exon 7. Here, we describe a novel approach to exon 7 splicing modulation through activation of a cryptic 5'ss (Cr1). We discovered the activation of Cr1 in transcripts derived from SMN1 that carries a pathogenic G-to-C mutation at the first position (G1C) of intron 7. We show that Cr1-activating engineered U1 snRNAs (eU1s) have the unique ability to reprogram pre-mRNA splicing and restore exon 7 inclusion in SMN1 carrying a broad spectrum of pathogenic mutations at both the 3'ss and 5'ss of the exon 7. Employing a splicing-coupled translation reporter, we demonstrate that mRNAs generated by an eU1-induced activation of Cr1 produce full-length SMN. Our findings underscore a wider role for U1 snRNP in splicing regulation and reveal a novel approach for the restoration of SMN exon 7 inclusion for a potential therapy of SMA.

Succession of splicing regulatory elements determines cryptic 5΄ss functionality

A critical step in exon definition is the recognition of a proper splice donor (5΄ss) by the 5’ end of U1 snRNA. In the selection of appropriate 5΄ss, cis-acting splicing regulatory elements (SREs) are indispensable. As a model for 5΄ss recognition, we investigated cryptic 5΄ss selection within the human fibrinogen Bβ-chain gene (FGB) exon 7, where we identified several exonic SREs that simultaneously acted on up- and downstream cryptic 5΄ss. In the FGB exon 7 model system, 5΄ss selection iteratively proceeded along an alternating sequence of U1 snRNA binding sites and interleaved SREs which in principle supported different 3’ exon ends. Like in a relay race, SREs either suppressed a potential 5΄ss and passed the splicing baton on or splicing actually occurred. From RNA-Seq data, we systematically selected 19 genes containing exons with silent U1 snRNA binding sites competing with nearby highly used 5΄ss. Extensive SRE analysis by different algorithms found authentic 5΄ss significantly more supported by SREs than silent U1 snRNA binding sites, indicating that our concept may permit generalization to a model for 5΄ss selection and 3’ exon end definition.

Analysis of Competing HIV-1 Splice Donor Sites Uncovers a Tight Cluster of Splicing Regulatory Elements within Exon 2/2b

The HIV-1 accessory protein Vif is essential for viral replication by counteracting the host restriction factor APOBEC3G (A3G), and balanced levels of both proteins are required for efficient viral replication. Noncoding exons 2/2b contain the Vif start codon between their alternatively used splice donors 2 and 2b (D2 and D2b). For vif mRNA, intron 1 must be removed while intron 2 must be retained. Thus, splice acceptor 1 (A1) must be activated by U1 snRNP binding to either D2 or D2b, while splicing at D2 or D2b must be prevented. Here, we unravel the complex interactions between previously known and novel components of the splicing regulatory network regulating HIV-1 exon 2/2b inclusion in viral mRNAs. In particular, using RNA pulldown experiments and mass spectrometry analysis, we found members of the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoparticle (hnRNP) A/B family binding to a novel splicing regulatory element (SRE), the exonic splicing silencer ESS2b, and the splicing regulatory proteins Tra2/SRSF10 binding to the nearby exonic splicing enhancer ESE2b. Using a minigene reporter, we performed bioinformatics HEXplorer-guided mutational analysis to narrow down SRE motifs affecting splice site selection between D2 and D2b. Eventually, the impacts of these SREs on the viral splicing pattern and protein expression were exhaustively analyzed in viral particle production and replication experiments. Masking of these protein binding sites by use of locked nucleic acids (LNAs) impaired Vif expression and viral replication.IMPORTANCE Based on our results, we propose a model in which a dense network of SREs regulates vif mRNA and protein expression, crucial to maintain viral replication within host cells with varying A3G levels and at different stages of infection. This regulation is maintained by several serine/arginine-rich splicing factors (SRSF) and hnRNPs binding to those elements. Targeting this cluster of SREs with LNAs may lead to the development of novel effective therapeutic strategies.

A purine-rich element in foamy virus pol regulates env splicing and gag/pol expression

Background

The foamy viral genome encodes four central purine-rich elements localized in the integrase-coding region of pol. Previously, we have shown that the first two of these RNA elements (A and B) are required for protease dimerization and activation. The D element functions as internal polypurine tract during reverse transcription. Peters et al., described the third element (C) as essential for gag expression suggesting that it might serve as an RNA export element for the unspliced genomic transcript.

Results

Here, we analysed env splicing and demonstrate that the described C element composed of three GAA repeats known to bind SR proteins regulates env splicing, thus balancing the amount of gag/pol mRNAs. Deletion of the C element effectively promotes a splice site switch from a newly identified env splice acceptor to the intrinsically strong downstream localised env 3′ splice acceptor permitting complete splicing of almost all LTR derived transcripts. We provide evidence that repression of this env splice acceptor is a prerequisite for gag expression. This repression is achieved by the C element, resulting in impaired branch point recognition and SF1/mBBP binding. Separating the branch point from the overlapping purine-rich C element, by insertion of only 20 nucleotides, liberated repression and fully restored splicing to the intrinsically strong env 3′ splice site. This indicated that the cis-acting element might repress splicing by blocking the recognition of essential splice site signals.

Conclusions

The foamy viral purine-rich C element regulates splicing by suppressing the branch point recognition of the strongest env splice acceptor. It is essential for the formation of unspliced gag and singly spliced pol transcripts.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12977-017-0337-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Differential hnRNP D isoform incorporation may confer plasticity to the ESSV-mediated repressive state across HIV-1 exon 3

Even though splicing repression by hnRNP complexes bound to exonic sequences is well-documented, the responsible effector domains of hnRNP proteins have been described for only a select number of hnRNP constituents. Thus, there is only limited information available for possible varying silencer activities amongst different hnRNP proteins and composition changes within possible hnRNP complex assemblies. In this study, we identified the glycine-rich domain (GRD) of hnRNP proteins as a unifying feature in splice site repression. We also show that all four hnRNP D isoforms can act as genuine splicing repressors when bound to exonic positions. The presence of an extended GRD, however, seemed to potentiate the hnRNP D silencer activity of isoforms p42 and p45. Moreover, we demonstrate that hnRNP D proteins associate with the HIV-1 ESSV silencer complex, probably through direct recognition of "UUAG" sequences overlapping with the previously described "UAGG" motifs bound by hnRNP A1. Consequently, this spatial proximity seems to cause mutual interference between hnRNP A1 and hnRNP D. This interplay between hnRNP A1 and D facilitates a dynamic regulation of the repressive state of HIV-1 exon 3 which manifests as fluctuating relative levels of spliced vpr- and unspliced gag/pol-mRNAs.

Splicing of designer exons informs a biophysical model for exon definition

Pre-mRNA molecules in humans contain mostly short internal exons flanked by longer introns. To explain the removal of such introns, exon recognition instead of intron recognition has been proposed. We studied this exon definition using designer exons (DEs) made up of three prototype modules of our own design: an exonic splicing enhancer (ESE), an exonic splicing silencer (ESS), and a Reference Sequence (R) predicted to be neither. Each DE was examined as the central exon in a three-exon minigene. DEs made of R modules showed a sharp size dependence, with exons shorter than 14 nt and longer than 174 nt splicing poorly. Changing the strengths of the splice sites improved longer exon splicing but worsened shorter exon splicing, effectively displacing the curve to the right. For the ESE we found, unexpectedly, that its enhancement efficiency was independent of its position within the exon. For the ESS we found a step-wise positional increase in its effects; it was most effective at the 3' end of the exon. To apply these results quantitatively, we developed a biophysical model for exon definition of internal exons undergoing cotranscriptional splicing. This model features commitment to inclusion before the downstream exon is synthesized and competition between skipping and inclusion fates afterward. Collision of both exon ends to form an exon definition complex was incorporated to account for the effect of size; ESE/ESS effects were modeled on the basis of stabilization/destabilization. This model accurately predicted the outcome of independent experiments on more complex DEs that combined ESEs and ESSs.

Introns and gene expression: cellular constraints, transcriptional regulation, and evolutionary consequences

A gene's “expression profile” denotes the number of transcripts present relative to all other transcripts. The overall rate of transcript production is determined by transcription and RNA processing rates. While the speed of elongating RNA polymerase II has been characterized for many different genes and organisms, gene-architectural features – primarily the number and length of exons and introns – have recently emerged as important regulatory players. Several new studies indicate that rapidly cycling cells constrain gene-architecture toward short genes with a few introns, allowing efficient expression during short cell cycles. In contrast, longer genes with long introns exhibit delayed expression, which can serve as timing mechanisms for patterning processes. These findings indicate that cell cycle constraints drive the evolution of gene-architecture and shape the transcriptome of a given cell type. Furthermore, a tendency for short genes to be evolutionarily young hints at links between cellular constraints and the evolution of animal ontogeny.

Genomic HEXploring allows landscaping of novel potential splicing regulatory elements

Effective splice site selection is critically controlled by flanking splicing regulatory elements (SREs) that can enhance or repress splice site use. Although several computational algorithms currently identify a multitude of potential SRE motifs, their predictive power with respect to mutation effects is limited. Following a RESCUE-type approach, we defined a hexamer-based ‘HEXplorer score’ as average Z-score of all six hexamers overlapping with a given nucleotide in an arbitrary genomic sequence. Plotted along genomic regions, HEXplorer score profiles varied slowly in the vicinity of splice sites. They reflected the respective splice enhancing and silencing properties of splice site neighborhoods beyond the identification of single dedicated SRE motifs. In particular, HEXplorer score differences between mutant and reference sequences faithfully represented exonic mutation effects on splice site usage. Using the HIV-1 pre-mRNA as a model system highly dependent on SREs, we found an excellent correlation in 29 mutations between splicing activity and HEXplorer score. We successfully predicted and confirmed five novel SREs and optimized mutations inactivating a known silencer. The HEXplorer score allowed landscaping of splicing regulatory regions, provided a quantitative measure of mutation effects on splice enhancing and silencing properties and permitted calculation of the mutationally most effective nucleotide.

Combined computational-experimental analyses of CFTR exon strength uncover predictability of exon-skipping level

With the increased number of identified nucleotide sequence variations in genes, the current challenge is to classify them as disease causing or neutral. These variants of unknown clinical significance can alter multiple processes, from gene transcription to RNA splicing or protein function. Using an approach combining several in silico tools, we identified some exons presenting weaker splicing motifs than other exons in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene. These exons exhibit higher rates of basal skipping than exons harboring no identifiable weak splicing signals using minigene assays. We then screened 19 described mutations in three different exons, and identified exon-skipping substitutions. These substitutions induced higher skipping levels in exons having one or more weak splicing motifs. Indeed, this level remained under 2% for exons with strong splicing motifs and could reach 40% for exons having at least one weak motif. Further analysis revealed a functional exon splicing enhancer within exon 3 that was associated with the SR protein SF2/ASF and whose disruption induced exon skipping. Exon skipping was confirmed in vivo in two nasal epithelial cell brushing samples. Our approach, which point out exons with some splicing signals weaknesses, will help spot splicing mutations of clinical relevance.

The HIV-1 major splice donor D1 is activated by splicing enhancer elements within the leader region and the p17-inhibitory sequence

Usage of the HIV-1 major 5' splice site D1 is a prerequisite for generation of all spliced viral mRNAs encoding essential regulatory and structural proteins. We set out to determine whether flanking sequences ensure D1-activation. We found that an exonic splicing enhancer function is exerted by the region upstream of D1, which is crucially required for its activation. Additionally, we identified an intronic splicing regulatory element within the p17-instability element of the Gag-ORF enhancing D1-activation. Furthermore, our experimental data demonstrated that sequence motifs displaying high similarity to consensus binding sites for SR protein SC35 (SRSF2) overlapping with D1 fine-tune its activation. Our results reveal that D1-activation is safe-guarded by the interplay of upstream and downstream located splicing enhancer elements ensuring usage of D1 even if its strength is decreased upon mutation. The identification of sequence elements activating D1-usage sheds further light on the balanced expression of alternatively spliced HIV-1 mRNAs.

Nonsense mutation-associated Becker muscular dystrophy: interplay between exon definition and splicing regulatory elements within the DMD gene

Nonsense mutations are usually predicted to function as null alleles due to premature termination of protein translation. However, nonsense mutations in the DMD gene, encoding the dystrophin protein, have been associated with both the severe Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) and milder Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD) phenotypes. In a large survey, we identified 243 unique nonsense mutations in the DMD gene, and for 210 of these we could establish definitive phenotypes. We analyzed the reading frame predicted by exons flanking those in which nonsense mutations were found, and present evidence that nonsense mutations resulting in BMD likely do so by inducing exon skipping, confirming that exonic point mutations affecting exon definition have played a significant role in determining phenotype. We present a new model based on the combination of exon definition and intronic splicing regulatory elements for the selective association of BMD nonsense mutations with a subset of DMD exons prone to mutation-induced exon skipping.

Identification and experimental validation of splicing regulatory elements in Drosophila melanogaster reveals functionally conserved splicing enhancers in metazoans

RNA sequence elements involved in the regulation of pre-mRNA splicing have previously been identified in vertebrate genomes by computational methods. Here, we apply such approaches to predict splicing regulatory elements in Drosophila melanogaster and compare them with elements previously found in the human, mouse, and pufferfish genomes. We identified 99 putative exonic splicing enhancers (ESEs) and 231 putative intronic splicing enhancers (ISEs) enriched near weak 5' and 3' splice sites of constitutively spliced introns, distinguishing between those found near short and long introns. We found that a significant proportion (58%) of fly enhancer sequences were previously reported in at least one of the vertebrates. Furthermore, 20% of putative fly ESEs were previously identified as ESEs in human, mouse, and pufferfish; while only two fly ISEs, CTCTCT and TTATAA, were identified as ISEs in all three vertebrate species. Several putative enhancer sequences are similar to characterized binding-site motifs for Drosophila and mammalian splicing regulators. To provide additional evidence for the function of putative ISEs, we separately identified 298 intronic hexamers significantly enriched within sequences phylogenetically conserved among 15 insect species. We found that 73 putative ISEs were among those enriched in conserved regions of the D. melanogaster genome. The functions of nine enhancer sequences were verified in a heterologous splicing reporter, demonstrating that these sequences are sufficient to enhance splicing in vivo. Taken together, these data identify a set of predicted positive-acting splicing regulatory motifs in the Drosophila genome and reveal regulatory sequences that are present in distant metazoan genomes.

Evolution of SR protein and hnRNP splicing regulatory factors

The splicing of pre-mRNAs is an essential step of gene expression in eukaryotes. Introns are removed from split genes through the activities of the spliceosome, a large ribonuclear machine that is conserved throughout the eukaryotic lineage. While unicellular eukaryotes are characterized by less complex splicing, pre-mRNA splicing of multicellular organisms is often associated with extensive alternative splicing that significantly enriches their proteome. The alternative selection of splice sites and exons permits multicellular organisms to modulate gene expression patterns in a cell type-specific fashion, thus contributing to their functional diversification. Alternative splicing is a regulated process that is mainly influenced by the activities of splicing regulators, such as SR proteins or hnRNPs. These modular factors have evolved from a common ancestor through gene duplication events to a diverse group of splicing regulators that mediate exon recognition through their sequence-specific binding to pre-mRNAs. Given the strong correlations between intron expansion, the complexity of pre-mRNA splicing, and the emergence of splicing regulators, it is argued that the increased presence of SR and hnRNP proteins promoted the evolution of alternative splicing through relaxation of the sequence requirements of splice junctions.

Context-dependent splicing regulation: exon definition, co-occurring motif pairs and tissue specificity

Splicing is a crucial process in gene expression in higher organisms because: 1) most vertebrate genes contain introns; and 2) alternative splicing is primarily responsible for increasing proteomic complexity and functional diversity. Intron definition, the coordination across an intron, is a mandatory step in the splicing process. However, exon definition, the coordination across an exon, is also thought to be required for the splicing of most vertebrate exons. Recent investigations of exon definition complexes provide insights into splicing dynamics. That splicing regulators act in a context-dependent mode is supported by a large collection of evidence. Splicing contexts generally can be classified as cis-element and trans-element contexts. A widespread cis-element context is defined by co-occurring motif pairs to which splicing regulatory factors bind to direct specific molecular interactions. Splicing regulation is also coordinated by trans-element contexts as exemplified by tissue specific splicing, where alternative exons can be coordinately regulated by a few splicing factors, the expression and/or activity of which are concertedly higher or lower in the corresponding tissues.

Alternative splicing and genetic diversity: silencers are more frequently modified by SNVs associated with alternative exon/intron borders

With the availability of a large amount of genomic data it is expected that the influence of single nucleotide variations (SNVs) in many biological phenomena will be elucidated. Here, we approached the problem of how SNVs affect alternative splicing. First, we observed that SNVs and exonic splicing regulators (ESRs) independently show a biased distribution in alternative exons. More importantly, SNVs map more frequently in ESRs located in alternative exons than in ESRs located in constitutive exons. By looking at SNVs associated with alternative exon/intron borders (by their common presence in the same cDNA molecule), we observed that a specific type of ESR, the exonic splicing silencers (ESSs), are more frequently modified by SNVs. Our results establish a clear association between genetic diversity and alternative splicing involving ESSs.

Stoichiometry of a regulatory splicing complex revealed by single-molecule analyses

Splicing is regulated by complex interactions of numerous RNA-binding proteins. The molecular mechanisms involved remain elusive, in large part because of ignorance regarding the numbers of proteins in regulatory complexes. Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB), which regulates tissue-specific splicing, represses exon 3 of alpha-tropomyosin through distant pyrimidine-rich tracts in the flanking introns. Current models for repression involve either PTB-mediated looping or the propagation of complexes between tracts. To test these models, we used single-molecule approaches to count the number of bound PTB molecules both by counting the number of bleaching steps of GFP molecules linked to PTB within complexes and by analysing their total emissions. Both approaches showed that five or six PTB molecules assemble. Given the domain structures, this suggests that the molecules occupy primarily multiple overlapping potential sites in the polypyrimidine tracts, excluding propagation models. As an alternative to direct looping, we propose that repression involves a multistep process in which PTB binding forms small local loops, creating a platform for recruitment of other proteins that bring these loops into close proximity.

Novel sequence variations in LAMA2 andSGCG genes modulating cis-acting regulatory elements and RNA secondary structure

In this study, we detected new sequence variations in LAMA2 and SGCG genes in 5 ethnic populations, and analysed their effect on enhancer composition and mRNA structure. PCR amplification and DNA sequencing were performed and followed by bioinformatics analyses using ESEfinder as well as MFOLD software. We found 3 novel sequence variations in the LAMA2 (c.3174+22_23insAT and c.6085 +12delA) and SGCG (c. ^* 102A/C) genes. These variations were present in 210 tested healthy controls from Tunisian, Moroccan, Algerian, Lebanese and French populations suggesting that they represent novel polymorphisms within LAMA2 and SGCG genes sequences. ESEfinder showed that the c. ^* 102A/C substitution created a new exon splicing enhancer in the 3'UTR of SGCG genes, whereas the c.6085 +12delA deletion was situated in the base pairing region between LAMA2 mRNA and the U1snRNA spliceosomal components. The RNA structure analyses showed that both variations modulated RNA secondary structure. Our results are suggestive of correlations between mRNA folding and the recruitment of spliceosomal components mediating splicing, including SR proteins. The contribution of common sequence variations to mRNA structural and functional diversity will contribute to a better study of gene expression.

Expansion of the eukaryotic proteome by alternative splicing

The collection of components required to carry out the intricate processes involved in generating and maintaining a living, breathing and, sometimes, thinking organism is staggeringly complex. Where do all of the parts come from? Early estimates stated that about 100,000 genes would be required to make up a mammal; however, the actual number is less than one-quarter of that, barely four times the number of genes in budding yeast. It is now clear that the 'missing' information is in large part provided by alternative splicing, the process by which multiple different functional messenger RNAs, and therefore proteins, can be synthesized from a single gene.

Genomic features defining exonic variants that modulate splicing

A comparative analysis of SNPs and their exonic and intronic environments identifies the features predictive of splice affecting variants.

Background

Single point mutations at both synonymous and non-synonymous positions within exons can have severe effects on gene function through disruption of splicing. Predicting these mutations in silico purely from the genomic sequence is difficult due to an incomplete understanding of the multiple factors that may be responsible. In addition, little is known about which computational prediction approaches, such as those involving exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers, are most informative.

Results

We assessed the features of single-nucleotide genomic variants verified to cause exon skipping and compared them to a large set of coding SNPs common in the human population, which are likely to have no effect on splicing. Our findings implicate a number of features important for their ability to discriminate splice-affecting variants, including the naturally occurring density of exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers of the exon and intronic environment, extensive changes in the number of predicted exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers, proximity to the splice junctions and evolutionary constraint of the region surrounding the variant. By extending this approach to additional datasets, we also identified relevant features of variants that cause increased exon inclusion and ectopic splice site activation.

Conclusions

We identified a number of features that have statistically significant representation among exonic variants that modulate splicing. These analyses highlight putative mechanisms responsible for splicing outcome and emphasize the role of features important for exon definition. We developed a web-tool, Skippy, to score coding variants for these relevant splice-modulating features.

Overlapping splicing regulatory motifs--combinatorial effects on splicing

Regulation of splicing in eukaryotes occurs through the coordinated action of multiple splicing factors. Exons and introns contain numerous putative binding sites for splicing regulatory proteins. Regulation of splicing is presumably achieved by the combinatorial output of the binding of splicing factors to the corresponding binding sites. Although putative regulatory sites often overlap, no extensive study has examined whether overlapping regulatory sequences provide yet another dimension to splicing regulation. Here we analyzed experimentally-identified splicing regulatory sequences using a computational method based on the natural distribution of nucleotides and splicing regulatory sequences. We uncovered positive and negative interplay between overlapping regulatory sequences. Examination of these overlapping motifs revealed a unique spatial distribution, especially near splice donor sites of exons with weak splice donor sites. The positively selected overlapping splicing regulatory motifs were highly conserved among different species, implying functionality. Overall, these results suggest that overlap of two splicing regulatory binding sites is an evolutionary conserved widespread mechanism of splicing regulation. Finally, over-abundant motif overlaps were experimentally tested in a reporting minigene revealing that overlaps may facilitate a mode of splicing that did not occur in the presence of only one of the two regulatory sequences that comprise it.

Alternative splicing: role of pseudoexons in human disease and potential therapeutic strategies

What makes a nucleotide sequence an exon (or an intron) is a question that still lacks a satisfactory answer. Indeed, most eukaryotic genes are full of sequences that look like perfect exons, but which are nonetheless ignored by the splicing machinery (hence the name 'pseudoexons'). The existence of these pseudoexons has been known since the earliest days of splicing research, but until recently the tendency has been to view them as an interesting, but rather rare, curiosity. In recent years, however, the importance of pseudoexons in regulating splicing processes has been steadily revalued. Even more importantly, clinically oriented screening studies that search for splicing mutations are beginning to uncover a situation where aberrant pseudoexon inclusion as a cause of human disease is more frequent than previously thought. Here we aim to provide a review of the mechanisms that lead to pseudoexon activation in human genes and how the various cis- and trans-acting cellular factors regulate their inclusion. Moreover, we list the potential therapeutic approaches that are being tested with the aim of inhibiting their inclusion in the final mRNA molecules.

Frame-disrupting mutations elicit pre-mRNA accumulation independently of frame disruption

The T-cell receptor (TCR) and immunoglobulin (Ig) genes are unique among vertebrate genes in that they undergo programmed rearrangement, a process that allows them to generate an enormous array of receptors with different antigen specificities. While crucial for immune function, this rearrangement mechanism is highly error prone, often generating frameshift or nonsense mutations that render the rearranged TCR and Ig genes defective. Such frame-disrupting mutations have been reported to increase the level of TCRbeta and Igmicro pre-mRNA, suggesting the hypothesis that RNA processing is blocked when frame disruption is sensed. Using a chimeric gene that contains TCRbeta sequences conferring this upregulatory response, we provide evidence that pre-mRNA upregulation is neither frame- nor translation-dependent; instead, several lines of evidence suggested that it is the result of disrupted cis elements necessary for efficient RNA splicing. In particular, we identify the rearranging VDJ(beta) exon as being uniquely densely packed with exonic-splicing enhancers (ESEs), rendering this exon hypersensitive to mutational disruption. As the chimeric gene that we developed for these studies generates unusually stable nuclear pre-mRNAs that accumulate when challenged with ESE mutations, we suggest it can be used as a sensitive in vivo system to identify and characterize ESEs.

Divergence of exonic splicing elements after gene duplication and the impact on gene structures

An analysis of human exonic splicing elements in duplicated genes reveals their important role in the generation of new gene structures.

Background

The origin of new genes and their contribution to functional novelty has been the subject of considerable interest. There has been much progress in understanding the mechanisms by which new genes originate. Here we examine a novel way that new gene structures could originate, namely through the evolution of new alternative splicing isoforms after gene duplication.

Results

We studied the divergence of exonic splicing enhancers and silencers after gene duplication and the contributions of such divergence to the generation of new splicing isoforms. We found that exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers diverge especially fast shortly after gene duplication. About 10% and 5% of paralogous exons undergo significantly asymmetric evolution of exonic splicing enhancers and silencers, respectively. When compared to pre-duplication ancestors, we found that there is a significant overall loss of exonic splicing enhancers and the magnitude increases with duplication age. Detailed examination reveals net gains and losses of exonic splicing enhancers and silencers in different copies and paralog clusters after gene duplication. Furthermore, we found that exonic splicing enhancer and silencer changes are mainly caused by synonymous mutations, though nonsynonymous changes also contribute. Finally, we found that exonic splicing enhancer and silencer divergence results in exon splicing state transitions (from constitutive to alternative or vice versa), and that the proportion of paralogous exon pairs with different splicing states also increases over time, consistent with previous predictions.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that exonic splicing enhancer and silencer changes after gene duplication have important roles in alternative splicing divergence and that these changes contribute to the generation of new gene structures.

Decrypting the genome's alternative messages

Alternative splicing of messenger RNA (mRNA) precursors affects the majority of human genes, has a considerable impact on eukaryotic gene function and offers distinct opportunities for regulation. Alterations in alternative splicing can cause or modify the progression of a significant number of pathologies. Recent high-throughput technologies have uncovered a wealth of transcript diversity generated by alternative splicing, as well as examples for how this diversity can be established and become misregulated. A variety of mechanisms modulate splice site choice coordinately with other cellular processes, from transcription and mRNA editing or decay to miRNA-based regulation and telomerase function. Alternative splicing studies can contribute to our understanding of multiple biological processes, including genetic diversity, speciation, cell/stem cell differentiation, nervous system function, neuromuscular disorders and tumour progression.