Residues in two homology blocks on the amino side of the tRNase Z His domain contribute unexpectedly to pre-tRNA 3' end processing

ELAC2/RNaseZ-linked cardiac hypertrophy in Drosophila melanogaster

A severe form of infantile cardiomyopathy (CM) has been linked to mutations in ELAC2, a highly conserved human gene. It encodes Zinc phosphodiesterase ELAC protein 2 (ELAC2), which plays an essential role in the production of mature tRNAs. To establish a causal connection between ELAC2 variants and CM, here we used the Drosophila melanogaster model organism, which carries the ELAC2 homolog RNaseZ. Even though RNaseZ and ELAC2 have diverged in some of their biological functions, our study demonstrates the use of the fly model to study the mechanism of ELAC2-related pathology. We established transgenic lines harboring RNaseZ with CM-linked mutations in the background of endogenous RNaseZ knockout. Importantly, we found that the phenotype of these flies is consistent with the pathological features in human patients. Specifically, expression of CM-linked variants in flies caused heart hypertrophy and led to reduction in cardiac contractility associated with a rare form of CM. This study provides first experimental evidence for the pathogenicity of CM-causing mutations in the ELAC2 protein, and the foundation to improve our understanding and diagnosis of this rare infantile disease.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Summary: A newly established Drosophila model recapitulates key features of human heart pathology linked to mutations in ELAC2, thus providing experimental evidence of the pathogenicity of ELAC2 variants.

The crystal structure of Trz1, the long form RNase Z from yeast

tRNAs are synthesized as precursor RNAs that have to undergo processing steps to become functional. Yeast Trz1 is a key endoribonuclease involved in the 3΄ maturation of tRNAs in all domains of life. It is a member of the β-lactamase family of RNases, characterized by an HxHxDH sequence motif involved in coordination of catalytic Zn-ions. The RNase Z family consists of two subfamilies: the short (250-400 residues) and the long forms (about double in size). Short form RNase Z enzymes act as homodimers: one subunit embraces tRNA with a protruding arm, while the other provides the catalytic site. The long form is thought to contain two fused β-lactamase domains within a single polypeptide. Only structures of short form RNase Z enzymes are known. Here we present the 3.1 Å crystal structure of the long-form Trz1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Trz1 is organized into two β-lactamase domains connected by a long linker. The N-terminal domain has lost its catalytic residues, but retains the long flexible arm that is important for tRNA binding, while it is the other way around in the C-terminal domain. Trz1 likely evolved from a duplication and fusion of the gene encoding the monomeric short form RNase Z.

Identification and sequence analysis of metazoan tRNA 3'-end processing enzymes tRNase Zs

tRNase Z is the endonuclease responsible for removing the 3'-trailer sequences from precursor tRNAs, a prerequisite for the addition of the CCA sequence. It occurs in the short (tRNase Z^S) and long (tRNase Z^L) forms. Here we report the identification and sequence analysis of candidate tRNase Zs from 81 metazoan species. We found that the vast majority of deuterostomes, lophotrochozoans and lower metazoans have one tRNase Z^S and one tRNase Z^L genes, whereas ecdysozoans possess only a single tRNase Z^L gene. Sequence analysis revealed that in metazoans, a single nuclear tRNase Z^L gene is likely to encode both the nuclear and mitochondrial forms of tRNA 3′-end processing enzyme through mechanisms that include alternative translation initiation from two in-frame start codons and alternative splicing. Sequence conservation analysis revealed a variant PxKxRN motif, PxPxRG, which is located in the N-terminal region of tRNase Z^Ss. We also identified a previously unappreciated motif, AxDx, present in the C-terminal region of both tRNase Z^Ss and tRNase Z^Ls. The AxDx motif consisting mainly of a very short loop is potentially close enough to form hydrogen bonds with the loop containing the PxKxRN or PxPxRG motif. Through complementation analysis, we demonstrated the likely functional importance of the AxDx motif. In conclusion, our analysis supports the notion that in metazoans a single tRNase Z^L has evolved to participate in both nuclear and mitochondrial tRNA 3′-end processing, whereas tRNase Z^S may have evolved new functions. Our analysis also unveils new evolutionarily conserved motifs in tRNase Zs, including the C-terminal AxDx motif, which may have functional significance.

A survey of green plant tRNA 3'-end processing enzyme tRNase Zs, homologs of the candidate prostate cancer susceptibility protein ELAC2

Background

tRNase Z removes the 3'-trailer sequences from precursor tRNAs, which is an essential step preceding the addition of the CCA sequence. tRNase Z exists in the short (tRNase Z^S) and long (tRNase Z^L) forms. Based on the sequence characteristics, they can be divided into two major types: bacterial-type tRNase Z^S and eukaryotic-type tRNase Z^L, and one minor type, Thermotoga maritima (TM)-type tRNase Z^S. The number of tRNase Zs is highly variable, with the largest number being identified experimentally in the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana. It is unknown whether multiple tRNase Zs found in A. thaliana is common to the plant kingdom. Also unknown is the extent of sequence and structural conservation among tRNase Zs from the plant kingdom.

Results

We report the identification and analysis of candidate tRNase Zs in 27 fully sequenced genomes of green plants, the great majority of which are flowering plants. It appears that green plants contain multiple distinct tRNase Zs predicted to reside in different subcellular compartments. Furthermore, while the bacterial-type tRNase Z^Ss are present only in basal land plants and green algae, the TM-type tRNase Z^Ss are widespread in green plants. The protein sequences of the TM-type tRNase Z^Ss identified in green plants are similar to those of the bacterial-type tRNase Z^Ss but have distinct features, including the TM-type flexible arm, the variant catalytic HEAT and HST motifs, and a lack of the PxKxRN motif involved in CCA anti-determination (inhibition of tRNase Z activity by CCA), which prevents tRNase Z cleavage of mature tRNAs. Examination of flowering plant chloroplast tRNA genes reveals that many of these genes encode partial CCA sequences. Based on our results and previous studies, we predict that the plant TM-type tRNase Z^Ss may not recognize the CCA sequence as an anti-determinant.

Conclusions

Our findings substantially expand the current repertoire of the TM-type tRNase Z^Ss and hint at the possibility that these proteins may have been selected for their ability to process chloroplast pre-tRNAs with whole or partial CCA sequences. Our results also support the coevolution of tRNase Zs and tRNA 3'-trailer sequences in plants.

Identification and analysis of candidate fungal tRNA 3'-end processing endonucleases tRNase Zs, homologs of the putative prostate cancer susceptibility protein ELAC2

BACKGROUND

tRNase Z is the endonuclease that is responsible for the 3'-end processing of tRNA precursors, a process essential for tRNA 3'-CCA addition and subsequent tRNA aminoacylation. Based on their sizes, tRNase Zs can be divided into the long (tRNase ZL) and short (tRNase ZS) forms. tRNase ZL is thought to have arisen from a tandem gene duplication of tRNase ZS with further sequence divergence. The species distribution of tRNase Z is complex. Fungi represent an evolutionarily diverse group of eukaryotes. The recent proliferation of fungal genome sequences provides an opportunity to explore the structural and functional diversity of eukaryotic tRNase Zs.

RESULTS

We report a survey and analysis of candidate tRNase Zs in 84 completed fungal genomes, spanning a broad diversity of fungi. We find that tRNase ZL is present in all fungi we have examined, whereas tRNase ZS exists only in the fungal phyla Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota. Furthermore, we find that unlike the Pezizomycotina and Saccharomycotina, which contain a single tRNase ZL, Schizosaccharomyces fission yeasts (Taphrinomycotina) contain two tRNase ZLs encoded by two different tRNase ZL genes. These two tRNase ZLs are most likely localized to the nucleus and mitochondria, respectively, suggesting partitioning of tRNase Z function between two different tRNase ZLs in fission yeasts. The fungal tRNase Z phylogeny suggests that tRNase ZSs are ancestral to tRNase ZLs. Additionally, the evolutionary relationship of fungal tRNase ZLs is generally consistent with known phylogenetic relationships among the fungal species and supports tRNase ZL gene duplication in certain fungal taxa, including Schizosaccharomyces fission yeasts. Analysis of tRNase Z protein sequences reveals putative atypical substrate binding domains in most fungal tRNase ZSs and in a subset of fungal tRNase ZLs. Finally, we demonstrate the presence of pseudo-substrate recognition and catalytic motifs at the N-terminal halves of tRNase ZLs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes the first comprehensive identification and sequence analysis of candidate fungal tRNase Zs. Our results support the proposal that tRNase ZL has evolved as a result of duplication and diversification of the tRNase ZS gene.

Catalytic properties of RNase BN/RNase Z from Escherichia coli: RNase BN is both an exo- and endoribonuclease

Processing of the 3' terminus of tRNA in many organisms is carried out by an endoribonuclease termed RNase Z or 3'-tRNase, which cleaves after the discriminator nucleotide to allow addition of the universal -CCA sequence. In some eubacteria, such as Escherichia coli, the -CCA sequence is encoded in all known tRNA genes. Nevertheless, an RNase Z homologue (RNase BN) is still present, even though its action is not needed for tRNA maturation. To help identify which RNA molecules might be potential substrates for RNase BN, we carried out a detailed examination of its specificity and catalytic potential using a variety of synthetic substrates. We show here that RNase BN is active on both double- and single-stranded RNA but that duplex RNA is preferred. The enzyme displays a profound base specificity, showing no activity on runs of C residues. RNase BN is strongly inhibited by the presence of a 3'-CCA sequence or a 3'-phosphoryl group. Digestion by RNase BN leads to 3-mers as the limit products, but the rate slows on molecules shorter than 10 nucleotides in length. Most interestingly, RNase BN acts as a distributive exoribonuclease on some substrates, releasing mononucleotides and a ladder of digestion products. However, RNase BN also cleaves endonucleolytically, releasing 3' fragments as short as 4 nucleotides. Although the presence of a 3'-phosphoryl group abolishes exoribonuclease action, it has no effect on the endoribonucleolytic cleavages. These data suggest that RNase BN may differ from other members of the RNase Z family, and they provide important information to be considered in identifying a physiological role for this enzyme.

Effect of changes in the flexible arm on tRNase Z processing kinetics

tRNAs are transcribed as precursors and processed in a series of reactions culminating in aminoacylation and translation. Central to tRNA maturation, the 3' end trailer can be endonucleolytically removed by tRNase Z. A flexible arm (FA) extruded from the body of tRNase Z consists of a structured alphaalphabetabeta hand that binds the elbow of pre-tRNA. Deleting the FA hand causes an almost 100-fold increase in Km with little change in kcat, establishing its contribution to substrate recognition/binding. Remarkably, a 40-residue Ala scan through the FA hand reveals a conserved leucine at the ascending stalk/hand boundary that causes practically the same increase in Km as the hand deletion, thus nearly eliminating its ability to bind substrate. Km also increases with substitutions in the GP (alpha4-alpha5) loop and at other conserved residues in the FA hand predicted to contact substrate based on the co-crystal structure. Substitutions that reduce kcat are clustered in the beta10-beta11 loop.

Escherichia coli tRNase Z can shut down growth probably by removing amino acids from aminoacyl-tRNAs

In most organisms, tRNase Z is considered to be essential for 3' processing of tRNA molecules. The Escherichia coli tRNase Z gene, however, appears to be dispensable under normal growth conditions, and its existence remained an enigma. Here we intensively examined various (pre-)tRNAs for good substrates of E. coli tRNase Z in vitro, and found that the enzyme can remove the 3' terminal CCA residues from mature tRNAs regardless of their nucleotide modifications. Furthermore, we discovered that E. coli tRNase Z, when sufficiently expressed in the cell, can shut down growth probably by removing amino acids from aminoacyl-tRNAs. We confirmed in vitro that E. coli tRNase Z exceptionally possesses the activity that cleaves off the 3' terminal residues charging an amino acid from an aminoacyl-tRNA molecule. The current data suggest that tRNase Z might help modulate a cell growth rate by repressing translation under some stressful conditions.

Functional analyses for tRNase Z variants: an aspartate and a histidine in the active site are essential for the catalytic activity

We performed functional analyses for various single amino-acid substitution variants of Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and human tRNase Zs. The well-conserved six histidine, His(I)-His(VI), and two aspartate, Asp(I) and Asp(II), residues together with metal ions are thought to form the active site of tRNase Z. The Mn(2+)-rescue analysis for Thermotoga maritima tRNase Z(S) has suggested that Asp(I) and His(V) directly contribute the proton transfer for the catalysis, and a catalytic mechanism has been proposed. However, experimental evidence supporting the proposed mechanism was limited. Here we intensively examined E. coli and B. subtilis tRNase Z(S) variants and human tRNase Z(L) variants for cleavage activities on pre-tRNAs in the presence of Mg(2+) or Mn(2+) ions. We observed that the Mn(2+) ions cannot rescue the activities of Asp(I)Ala and His(V)Ala variants from each species, which are lost in the presence of Mg(2+). This observation may support the proposed catalytic mechanism.

tRNase Z catalysis and conserved residues on the carboxy side of the His cluster

tRNAs are transcribed as precursors and processed in a series of required reactions leading to aminoacylation and translation. The 3'-end trailer can be removed by the pre-tRNA processing endonuclease tRNase Z, an ancient, conserved member of the beta-lactamase superfamily of metal-dependent hydrolases. The signature sequence of this family, the His domain (HxHxDH, Motif II), and histidines in Motifs III and V and aspartate in Motif IV contribute seven side chains for the coordination of two divalent metal ions. We previously investigated the effects on catalysis of substitutions in Motif II and in the PxKxRN loop and Motif I on the amino side of Motif II. Herein, we present the effects of substitutions on the carboxy side of Motif II within Motifs III, IV, the HEAT and HST loops, and Motif V. Substitution of the Motif IV aspartate reduces catalytic efficiency more than 10,000-fold. Histidines in Motif III, V, and the HST loop are also functionally important. Strikingly, replacement of Glu in the HEAT loop with Ala reduces efficiency by approximately 1000-fold. Proximity and orientation of this Glu side chain relative to His in the HST loop and the importance of both residues for catalysis suggest that they function as a duo in proton transfer at the final stage of reaction, characteristic of the tRNase Z class of RNA endonucleases.

Nucleases of the metallo-beta-lactamase family and their role in DNA and RNA metabolism

Proteins of the metallo-beta-lactamase family with either demonstrated or predicted nuclease activity have been identified in a number of organisms ranging from bacteria to humans and has been shown to be important constituents of cellular metabolism. Nucleases of this family are believed to utilize a zinc-dependent mechanism in catalysis and function as 5' to 3' exonucleases and or endonucleases in such processes as 3' end processing of RNA precursors, DNA repair, V(D)J recombination, and telomere maintenance. Examples of metallo-beta-lactamase nucleases include CPSF-73, a known component of the cleavage/polyadenylation machinery, which functions as the endonuclease in 3' end formation of both polyadenylated and histone mRNAs, and Artemis that opens DNA hairpins during V(D)J recombination. Mutations in two metallo-beta-lactamase nucleases have been implicated in human diseases: tRNase Z required for 3' processing of tRNA precursors has been linked to the familial form of prostate cancer, whereas inactivation of Artemis causes severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). There is also a group of as yet uncharacterized proteins of this family in bacteria and archaea that based on sequence similarity to CPSF-73 are predicted to function as nucleases in RNA metabolism. This article reviews the cellular roles of nucleases of the metallo-beta-lactamase family and the recent advances in studying these proteins.

Optimization and characterization of tRNA-shRNA expression constructs

Expression of short hairpin RNAs via the use of PolIII-based transcription systems has proven to be an effective mechanism for triggering RNAi in mammalian cells. The most popular promoters for this purpose are the U6 and H1 promoters since they are easily manipulated for expression of shRNAs with defined start and stop signals. Multiplexing (the use of siRNAs against multiple targets) is one strategy that is being developed by a number of laboratories for the treatment of HIV infection since it increases the likelihood of suppressing the emergence of resistant virus in applications. In this context, the development of alternative small PolIII promoters other than U6 and H1 would be useful. We describe tRNA(Lys3)-shRNA chimeric expression cassettes which produce siRNAs with comparable efficacy and strand selectivity to U6-expressed shRNAs, and show that their activity is consistent with processing by endogenous 3' tRNAse. In addition, our observations suggest general guidelines for expressing effective tRNA-shRNAs with the potential for graded response, to minimize toxicities associated with competition for components of the endogenous RNAi pathway in cells.