Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours in a prospective cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England: Results from the parental generation

Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours in a prospective cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England: Results from the offspring generation

Background

We explored associations between possible demographic and socioeconomic causes of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) in the offspring generation of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).

Methods

We examined approximately 4,450 offspring aged 28 years with RSBB data from a prospective birth cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England. Three RSBB outcome measures were assessed: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other) and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship). We explored age- and sex-adjusted associations between 35 demographic and socioeconomic exposures and each of the three RSBB outcomes using multinomial regression. Exposure-sex interactions were also examined.

Results

Some sociodemographic factors were associated with RSBB in this cohort; for instance, being female and from an ethnicity other than White were associated with increased religiosity across all domains. For many other exposures, however, associations were frequently null or inconsistent, often depending on the specific exposure and outcome combination. As an example, higher educational attainment was associated with higher rates of religious attendance, but not with religious belief or affiliation; in contrast, higher income was associated with lower levels of religiosity. No consistent interactions between sex and the exposures on RSBB were found. Effect sizes were also rather weak, with most pseudo- R 2 values below 0.5% and a maximum of 1.2%.

Conclusions

The results highlight that several demographic and socioeconomic factors are associated with RSBB in this cohort. However, the number of these associations, and their magnitude, is smaller than comparable results from the parental generation of these offspring, suggesting that patterns of sociodemographic factors associated with RSBB differ between these generations. In addition to describing these associations, this paper will help inform future studies using these data, particularly regarding the choice of potential sociodemographic confounders.

Maternal religiosity and adolescent mental health: A UK prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Previous research has examined associations between parental religiosity and offspring mental health, but findings are inconsistent, and few studies have focused on late adolescence when mental health problems are more common. This study examines the prospective relationship between maternal religiosity and offspring mental health in late adolescence.

METHODS

We used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children to examine the prospective association between latent classes of maternal religiosity (Highly Religious, Moderately Religious, Agnostic, Atheist) and self-reported mental health problems including common mental disorders, ICD 10 depression, depressive symptoms, generalised anxiety symptoms, self-harm acts, self-harm thoughts, and disordered eating outcomes at age 17-18 years (n = 7714). We used multivariable logistic regression analysis adjusted for maternal mental health, maternal adverse childhood experiences, and socioeconomic variables.

RESULTS

Compared with adolescent offspring of parents in the Agnostic class, offspring of the Atheist class had increased odds of depressive symptoms ((1.31[1.03,1.67]) and offspring of the Highly Religious class had increased odds of self-harm thoughts (1.43[1.04,1.97]). There was also weak evidence (95 % confidence intervals crossed the null) of increased odds of depression in the offspring of Moderately religious and Highly religious classes (1.26 [0.97,1.65], and 1.30 [0.99,1.70], respectively)) and self-harm acts in the offspring of the Highly religious class (1.31[0.98,1.74]). There was no evidence of associations with the disordered eating outcomes or generalised anxiety disorder symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence that adolescents whose mothers are Atheist, Moderately Religious, and Highly Religious are more likely to have depressive symptoms than those whose mothers are Agnostic. There was also evidence for an increased likelihood of self-harm (thoughts and acts) amongst adolescents of Highly Religious parents. Further research is needed to examine possible mechanisms that could explain these observed associations as well as a repetition of our analyses in a non-UK sample.

Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours in a prospective cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England: Results from the parental generation

Background: We explored associations between possible demographic and socioeconomic causes of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) in the parental generation of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Methods : We used a prospective birth cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England with 14,157 enrolled mothers and 14,154 associated partners. Three RSBB outcome measures collected during pregnancy were examined: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other) and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship). Multiple demographic and socioeconomic exposures were assessed (23 in mothers and 22 in partners). We explored age-adjusted associations between each exposure and outcome using multinomial regression, in addition to exposure-age interactions. Results: Many demographic and socioeconomic factors were associated with RSBB, including age, ethnicity, marital status, education, income and deprivation. Overall, higher socioeconomic position was associated with increased levels of RSBB, particularly regarding religious attendance. For instance, compared to mothers with the lowest level of educational attainment, a degree-level education was associated with a six-fold increase in the relative risk ratio of religious attendance at least once a week, relative to not attending at all (RRR=5.90; 95% CI=[4.44; 7.86]). The magnitude of these associations often varied by outcome, e.g., income was associated with religious attendance, but only weakly with religious affiliation. Although results were demographically and socially patterned, overall effect sizes were relatively small, with a largest pseudo- R 2 value of 2.4%. Patterns of association were similar for mothers and partners. Conclusion: The observed positive association between socioeconomic position and RSBB is contrary to much previous theoretical and empirical work. Potential reasons for these differences are discussed, including cross-cultural variation in religiosity and state support, and differences between RSBB measures. This descriptive paper can also help inform future studies using these data regarding the consideration of appropriate confounders.

Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours in a prospective cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England: Results from the offspring generation

Background: We explored associations between possible demographic and socioeconomic causes of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) in the offspring generation of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Methods: We examined approximately 4,450 offspring aged 28 years with RSBB data from a prospective birth cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England. Three RSBB outcome measures were assessed: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other) and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship). We explored age- and sex-adjusted associations between 35 demographic and socioeconomic exposures and each of the three RSBB outcomes using multinomial regression. Exposure-sex interactions were also examined. Results: Some sociodemographic factors were associated with RSBB in this cohort; for instance, being female and from an ethnicity other than White were associated with increased religiosity across all domains. For many other exposures, however, associations were frequently null or inconsistent, often depending on the specific exposure and outcome combination. As an example, higher educational attainment was associated with higher rates of religious attendance, but not with religious belief or affiliation; in contrast, higher income was associated with lower levels of religiosity. No consistent interactions between sex and the exposures on RSBB were found. Effect sizes were also rather weak, with most pseudo-R2 values below 0.5% and a maximum of 1.2%. Conclusions: The results highlight that several demographic and socioeconomic factors are associated with RSBB in this cohort. However, the number of these associations, and their magnitude, is smaller than comparable results from the parental generation of these offspring, suggesting that patterns of sociodemographic factors associated with RSBB differ between these generations. In addition to describing these associations, this paper will help inform future studies using these data, particularly regarding the choice of potential sociodemographic confounders.

Identifying patterns of religiosity in adults from a large UK cohort using latent class analysis

Background: Religiosity is a complex, multifaceted construct, comprising a variety of beliefs and behaviours. Much of the previous research that seeks to quantify religiosity has made use of variable-centred approaches, which place individuals on a continuum of religiosity. However, alternative approaches provide a way to examine different types of religiosity, represented by heterogeneous classes of religious (non)belief. The aim of this study was to apply a person-centred approach to understanding religious beliefs.  Methods: The present study used latent class analysis to identify classes of belief and non-belief in mothers (n=12429) and their partners (n=9953) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a large cohort study based in the UK. For this, we used a range of religious belief indicators. We also examined a number of socioeconomic factors, to identify differences between classes, using logistic regression.  Results: We identified four different classes of religiosity which we named Highly Religious, Moderately Religious, Agnostic, and Atheist, with similar configurations in both men and women. We also found that class membership was associated with several socioeconomic factors.  Conclusions: The findings provide an insight into different patterns of religiosity in adults in the UK. These classes could be used as exposures in future studies of religiosity and how it relates to a variety of outcomes in both mothers, partners, and their offspring.

Religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours and study participation in a prospective cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England

Background Longitudinal studies are key to understanding risk factors for health, well-being, and disease, yet associations may be biased if study invitation and participation are non-random. Religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) are increasingly recognised as having potentially important relationships with health. However, it is unclear whether RSBB is associated with study participation. We examine whether RSBB is associated with participation in the longitudinal birth cohort ALSPAC (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children). Methods Three RSBB factors were used: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other), and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship). Participation was measured in three ways: i) total number of questionnaires/clinics completed; ii) completion of the most recent questionnaire (in 2020); and iii) length of participation. Analyses were repeated for the ALSPAC mothers, their partners, and the study children, and were adjusted for relevant socio-demographic confounders. Results Religious attendance was positively associated with participation in all adjusted models in all three cohorts. For example, study mothers who attended a place of worship at least once a month on average completed two more questionnaires (out of a possible 50), had 50% greater odds of having completed the most recent questionnaire, and had 25% reduced risk of drop-out, relative to those who did not attend a place of worship. In the adjusted analyses, religious belief and attendance were not associated with participation. However, the majority of unadjusted models showed associations between RSBB and participation. Conclusion After adjusting for confounders, religious attendance –  not religious belief or affiliation – was associated with participation in ALSPAC. These results indicate that use of RSBB variables (and religious attendance in particular) may result in selection bias and spurious associations; these potential biases should be explored and discussed in future studies using these data.