A toxicological basis to derive a generic interspecies uncertainty factor

Charting a path towards non-destructive biomarkers in threatened wildlife: A systematic quantitative literature review

Threatened species are susceptible to irreversible population decline caused by adverse sub-lethal effects of chemical contaminant exposure. It is therefore vital to develop the necessary tools to predict and detect these effects as early as possible. Biomarkers of contaminant exposure and effect are widely applied to this end, and a significant amount of research has focused on development and validation of sensitive and diagnostic biomarkers. However, progress in the use biomarkers that can be measured using non-destructive techniques has been relatively slow and there are still many difficulties to overcome in the development of sound methods. This paper systematically quantifies and reviews studies that have aimed to develop or validate non-destructive biomarkers in wildlife, and provides an analysis of the successes of these methods based on the invasiveness of the methods, the potential for universal application, cost, and the potential for new biomarker discovery. These data are then used to infer what methods and approaches appear the most effective for successful development of non-destructive biomarkers of contaminant exposure in wildlife. This review highlights that research on non-destructive biomarkers in wildlife is severely lacking, and suggests further exploration of in vitro methods in future studies.

Arsenic speciation driving risk based corrective action

The toxicity of arsenic depends on a number of factors including its valence state. The more potent trivalent arsenic [arsenite (As3+)] inhibits a large number of cellular enzymatic pathways involved in energy production, while the less toxic pentavalent arsenic [arsenate (As5+)] interferes with phosphate metabolism, phosphoproteins and ATP formation (uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation). Environmental risk based corrective action for arsenic contamination utilizes data derived from arsenite studies of toxicity to be conservative. However, depending upon environmental conditions, the arsenate species may predominate substantially, especially in well aerated surface soils. Analyses of soil concentrations of arsenic species at two sites in northeastern Texas historically contaminated with arsenical pesticides yielded mean arsenate concentrations above 90% of total arsenic with the majority of the remainder being the trivalent arsenite species. Ecological risk assessments based on the concentration of the trivalent arsenite species will lead to restrictive remediation requirements that do not adequately reflect the level of risk associated with the predominate species of arsenic found in the soil. The greater concentration of the pentavalent arsenate species in soils would be the more appropriate species to monitor remediation at sites that contain high arsenate to arsenite ratios.

Predicted no-effect concentration and risk assessment for 17-[beta]-estradiol in waters of China

Contamination of the aquatic environment by EDCs has received considerable attention from scientists, government officials, and the public. E2, one of the EDCs with high estrogenic effect, has the potential to cause multiple endocrine-disrupting effects, even at small concentrations. In the present review, the toxicity of E2 to aquatic organisms was reviewed. Results of published studies show that, for aquatic species, reproductive effects were the most sensitive endpoint for E2 exposure.Although the risks posed by EDCs have caused much attention, the research on the WQC 'for EDCs is still at the initial stage. It has been suggested in several reports that the PNEC can be regarded as the most appropriate reference value for developing WQC for the EDCs. The SSD method was applied to derive PNECs that were based on reproductive effects endpoints. In the present review, 31 NOECs, based on reproductive effect endpoints for different species, were selected to construct the curve. ThePNEC value was determined to be 0.73 ng E2/L, which could protect the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, 6 NOECs for multigeneration species were also analyzed in anticipation of sensitivity comparison between the Fa and the F1 generations.When multiple generations of aquatic species were exposed to concentrations no greater than 100 ng E2/L, nearly 71.4% of the F 1 generation individuals were more sensitive to the effects of E2 than those of the Fa generation. This result indicated that different generations of the same species may respond differently to EDCs exposure.Individuals of the F 1 generation were slightly more sensitive than those of the Fa generation,in general. Therefore, protecting the F1 generation of aquatic organisms is particularly important when WQC values for the EDCs are established.Considering the toxic effects of EDCs on reproduction, long-term toxic effects(viz., full-life cycle study and the most sensitive life stage) should be used in settingWQC. Unfortunately, the NOECs of E2 for multigeneration species did not meet the requirement of PNEC derivation for protecting the Fl generation. Therefore, further research results are needed on the Fl generation of aquatic species to provide more insight into what constitutes adequate protection for aquatics lives. In the present review, the PNEC values derived in the study were compared to thePNEC values developed by others, and the results showed that they were highly consistent. In addition, we also compared the PNEC value for E2 to the PNEC value for EE2, a similar estrogen, and the result was also highly consistent when their EEFs were considered. These comparisons affirmed that the method we used for deriving the PNEC value of E2 was reasonable and the PNEC values we derived were acceptable for protecting aquatic organisms. By comparing the PNEC values we calculated to actual E2 concentrations in the natural water environment, we found that E2 in surface waters may pose high risks in many countries, especially China, Japan, the USA, Great Britain, and Italy.

Toxicity reference values and tissue residue criteria for protecting avian wildlife exposed to methylmercury in China

MeHg is the most biologically available and toxic from of mercury, and has the potential to bioaccumulate and biomagnify as it moves up the food chain. These characteristics result in MeHg exposure to avian wildlife at high trophic levels that can produce adverse effects. The toxicity of MeHg to birds was reviewed, and using available data, TRVs and TRCs were derived for protecting birds in China. The TRV and TRC values were based on concentrations of MeHg in diet (or fish tissue based) and tissues of birds. Two methods were applied to derive TRVs from concentrations in the diet or in tissues. These were the CSA and SSD approaches. Results of published studies show that reproductive productivity of while ibis was the most sensitive endpoint for MeHg exposure, and study results on white ibises were used for deriving the TRV and TRC values, which included applying a UF of 2.0. For the SSD approach, data for ten species were used to construct the SSD for MeHg, and to calculate the dietary-based TRV and TRC values. Using the CSA approach, the TRV was based on MeHg in the diet and was derived as 5.0 ng MeHg/g (bm).day; for feathers and blood, the TRV's were 3.16 μg THg/g (wwt), and 0.365 μg THg/g (wwt), respectively. The corresponding TRCs were 15.47 ng MeHg/g (wwt), 3.16 μg THg/g (wwt)respectively. The dietary-based TRV and TRC derived by SSD were 3.09 ng MeHg (bm)/day and 9.56 ng MeHg/g (wwt) respectively. However, birds tissue residue-based criteria were not available because insufficient MeHg effects data existed to construct an SSD for birds. We compared the criteria derived in our study to those developed by others, and concluded that our results provided more reasonable protection to Chinese avian wildlife. By comparing the criteria derived values we calculated to actual MeHg levels in fish and bird tissues, we concluded that these criteria values are useful indicators for screening-level risk assessments of avian wildlife in Chinese aquatic systems. The results of this meta-analysis might therefore have important implications for assessing the risk of Hg exposure to birds and for environmental management in China and in other regions. Moreover, because humans and top avian wildlife consumers are at the same trophic level, these criteria may also be used as a reference for human health risk assessment. The diet of birds consists of aquatic species from different trophic levels. However, the structure of the food web for avian wildlife and the environmental factors that effect their exposure to MeHg vary among aquatic systems. Therefore, further research results are needed on the food web structure of avian wildlife in Chinese aquatic systems to provide more insight into what constitutes adequate protection for avian wildlife.

Changing the Risk Paradigms Can be Good for Our Health: J-Shaped, Linear and Threshold Dose-Response Models

Both the linear (at low doses)-no-threshold (LNT) and the threshold models (S-shapes) dose-response lead to no benefit from low exposure. We propose three new models that allow and include, but do not require - unlike LNT and S-shaped models - this strong assumption. We also provide the means to calculate benefits associated with bi-phasic biological behaviors, when they occur and propose:THREE HORMETIC (PHASIC) MODELS: the J-shaped, inverse J-shaped, the min-max, andMethod for calculating the direct benefits associated with the J and inverse J-shaped models.The J-shaped and min-max models for mutagens and carcinogenic agents include an experimentally justified repair stage for toxic and carcinogenic damage. We link these to stochastic transition models for cancer and show how abrupt transitions in cancer hazard rates, as functions of exposure concentrations and durations, can emerge naturally in large cell populations even when the rates of cell-level events increase smoothly (e.g., proportionally) with concentration. In this very general family of models, J-shaped dose-response curves emerge. These results are universal, i.e., independent of specific biological details represented by the stochastic transition networks. Thus, using them suggests a more complete and realistic way to assess risks at low doses or dose-rates.

Assessing and managing risks arising from exposure to endocrine-active chemicals

Managing risks to human health and the environment produced by endocrine-active chemicals (EAC) is dependent on sound principles of risk assessment and risk management, which need to be adapted to address the uncertainties in the state of the science of EAC. Quantifying EAC hazard identification, mechanisms of action, and dose-response curves is complicated by a range of chemical structure/toxicology classes, receptors and receptor subtypes, and nonlinear dose-response curves with low-dose effects. Advances in risk science including toxicogenomics and quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) along with a return to the biological process of hormesis are proposed to complement existing risk assessment strategies, including that of the Endocrine Disruptor Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC 1998). EAC represents a policy issue that has captured the public's fears and concerns about environmental health. This overview describes the process of EAC risk assessment and risk management in the context of traditional risk management frameworks, with emphasis on the National Research Council Framework (1983), taking into consideration the strategies for EAC management in Canada, the United States, and the European Union.

A toxicologically based weight-of-evidence methodology for the relative ranking of chemicals of endocrine disruption potential

A toxicologically based predictive scheme is presented for quantitatively ranking chemical agents with respect to their capacity to ensure endocrine disruption in target species based on short-term bioassays. Criteria providing the predictive framework include: (1) endocrine disruption as a multistage process, (2) phylogenetic considerations, (3) model system, and (4) estrogenic potency. Relative rankings were calculated for 15 environmentally relevant agents reported to have endocrine-disrupting effects. The relative ranking process offers a procedure for assessing the potential of endocrine disruption and for identifying data gaps for specific chemical agents. Although the current scheme is limited to "estrogenic" agents, it is anticipated that future refinements (e.g., incorporation of antiestrogenic potency data) will improve the system.

Design of developmental toxicity studies for assessing joint effects of dose and duration

In the assessment of developmental and reproductive effects, the timing and duration of exposures to chemical compounds or other environmental contaminants are of particular interest, as the gestational cycle is known to have periods of increased sensitivity. The goal of this research is to identify optimal experimental designs for conducting developmental toxicity studies when the effects of both exposure level and duration of exposure are of interest. The elements of the study design considered in this evaluation are the allocation of animals to dose-duration exposure groups and the determination of the most efficient intermediate exposure levels. The optimality of various designs is assessed via the accuracy of the estimated excess risk as well as testing criteria. Simulation studies are conducted to compare these criteria and determine optimal design strategies under various underlying dose-response patterns. Asymptotic results are also derived to lend support to the simulation studies.