Exploration of the differential expression patterns of immunoglobulin heavy chain genes in horses and donkeys

This study investigated the immunoglobulins (IG) gene locus structure and expression diversity in local Chinese horse and donkey breeds, including Ningqiang, Guanzhong horses, and varieties such as Guanzhong, Jiami, and Northern Shaanxi donkey using genome alignment and high-throughput sequencing. The aim was to expand understanding of IG expression patterns in horses, donkeys, and their different breeds. The results revealed that the donkey IGH locus contains 117 VH genes (23 functional), 44 DH genes, and 8 JH genes, arranged in a VH-DH-JH sequence on chromosome 7, spanning approximately 1189 kb. Both horses and donkeys exhibited high frequencies of the IGHV4-IGHD2-IGHJ6, IGHV4-IGHD4-IGHJ6, and IGHV4-IGHD2-IGHJ4 combinations during VDJ recombination. Significant differences in V, D, and J junctions between horses and donkeys, as well as among breeds, were observed, mainly due to variations in N-nucleotide insertion length. The CDR3H region in horses exhibited greater length diversity and a higher Cys content than that in donkeys, which may contribute to species-specific differences in IGH spatial structure. Both horses and donkeys showed a clear preference for A > G and G > A mutations during somatic hypermutation (SHM), with consistent trends across breeds and species. In conclusion, this study reveals that V(D)J recombination, junction diversity, and SHM are key mechanisms driving IGH diversity in horses and donkeys. While the basic mechanisms for IGH diversification are similar across species and breeds, their specific manifestations exhibit both distinct and consistent patterns, reflecting differences in immune system adaptations and providing a theoretical basis for understanding IGH expression diversity in equids.

Assessment of Donkey (Equus asinus) Welfare at Slaughter in Ghana

Donkey slaughter in West Africa has received limited scientific attention, despite increasing over recent years. This study aimed to explore factors affecting donkey welfare, both ante-mortem and at slaughter, in the Upper East region of Ghana. A total of 134 donkeys at five different slaughter points were assessed using animal-based indicators. Slaughter involved either blunt force trauma (BFT) using a wooden pole (1 location) or a metal hammer (2 locations); or non-stun ventral neck incision (VNI) (2 locations). Time to loss of consciousness (or return) was assessed, with behavioural and brainstem signs of sensibility/consciousness. Negative human-animal interactions occurred ante-mortem, with animals struck multiple times and handled using aversive methods. Donkeys hit on the head with the wooden pole were five times more likely to be ineffectively concussed (p < 0.001, OR: 5.4, CI: 1.9-15.4) compared to the hammer and took significantly longer to lose consciousness (p < 0.001). The mean time to loss of corneal reflex for those hit by wooden pole was 166.9 s (SD 21.1; range: 79-425 s), compared to just one animal displaying corneal reflex for 59 s after being hit by metal hammer. For those animals slaughtered through VNI, corneal reflex was observed for a mean time of 96.5 s (SD 4.3, range 26-164 s). The findings of this study highlight major concerns regarding the methods used for donkey slaughter in the Upper East region in Ghana, particularly regarding aversive ante-mortem handling and prolonged time to loss of consciousness during VNI and ineffective BFT in inducing unconsciousness by concussion.

Hoof Disorders and Farriery in the Donkey

This article provides a review of hoof anatomy and care in donkeys and mules. Hoof disease is a major cause of poor welfare and mortality globally. Problems associated with hoof disease are discussed in the context of behavior, diet, treatment, and prevention. The most common conditions encountered are discussed, including laminitis, the overgrown unbalanced hoof, white line disease, flexural deformities, and other significant issues. Differences between donkey and horse hoof anatomy are described.

Comparing and Contrasting Knowledge on Mules and Hinnies as a Tool to Comprehend Their Behavior and Improve Their Welfare

Simple Summary

Mules and hinnies combine traits of their equid parents—the horse and donkey—but are less studied or understood. Still, their welfare varies greatly because of several factors. These hybrids have anatomy, health, nutritional, and behavioral particularities that are distinct from those of donkeys or horses. Their behavior can pose challenges to providing routine care and treatment during times of disease. Abusive treatment can result from those who have little understanding of learning theory or body language. Hence, an overview of studies and field observations can offer solutions for welfare enhancement. According to literature, participatory surveys and behavioral assessments across several countries, mule owners and handlers find it easier to interact with their animal as compared to allowing a stranger to do so. By contrast, unfamiliar persons had more success with mules handled at an early age. Gaining trust and proceeding with slow and methodical movements tend to work best for working with mules and hinnies. Early foal handling additionally creates success in training and behavior modification. Conclusively, the key to improving mule and hinny welfare is to shape human behavior, creating a training approach which will ultimately improve the animals’ welfare.

Abstract

Mules and hinnies are the hybrids between donkeys (Equus asinus) and horses (Equus caballus). For centuries, mankind has used them for agrarian purposes, the military, or recreation. Contrasting literature with behavioral observations, we seek a better behavioral understanding andthus comprehensive solutions for their welfare enhancement. Over the past 6 years, we have assessed physical and behavioral welfare in over 900 mules by surveying owners from Egypt, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Mexico, and the U.S. These mules participated in shows, brick kiln work, cart-pulling, packing, tourism, and cattle herding. Observations are discussed alongside facts from the literature. Unfortunately, their behavior has been misunderstood by many, and harsh treatment and equipment has been used to control them. Few studies have attempted to define or use learning theory to understand how and why mules and hinnies behave as they do. Hence, understanding their health considerations, natural behavior, and training theory is crucial for those who work with them.Solutions to welfare improvement partially lie in an individual’s ability to handle mules and hinnies from birth, and to proceed slowly through training. Conclusively, this review sets forth a clearer understanding of these hybrids’ behaviors and promotes positive handling, allowing their access to more routine healthcare and ultimately, a higher welfare standard.