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Dupont H, Lenfant T, Guillemot L, Loiko P, Delen X, Loiseau P, Viana B, Georges T, Georges P, Camy P, Druon F. High-power 2.3 µm Tm:YLF laser with intracavity upconversion pumping by a Nd:ASL laser at 1051 nm. OPTICS LETTERS 2024; 49:2093-2096. [PMID: 38621084 DOI: 10.1364/ol.523059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
A Tm:LiYF4 laser operating on the 3H4 → 3H5 transition is embedded in a high-power diode-pumped Nd:ASL laser for intracavity upconversion pumping at 1.05 µm. This leads to a record-high output power at 2.3 µm for any bulk thulium laser pumped by an upconversion process. The continuous-wave Tm:LiYF4 laser delivers 1.81 W at 2.3 µm for 32 W of laser-diode pump power, making this kind of pumping competitive with direct diode pumping. The intracavity pumping process allows for counteracting the low absorption inherent to upconversion pumping and to dispatch the thermal loads on two separate laser crystals. The proposed laser architecture also features a relatively weak heating of the Tm:LiYF4 crystal and an increased tolerance to Tm3+ absorption. This laser design opens a new paradigm that holds great promise for high-power 2.3-µm solid-state lasers based on thulium ions.
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2
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Qian L, Wu D, Liu D, Shi S, Song S, Gong W. Prototype development and evaluation of a hyperspectral lidar optical receiving system. OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 32:10786-10800. [PMID: 38570944 DOI: 10.1364/oe.514442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
As a new type of active Earth observation technology, airborne hyperspectral lidar combines the advantages of traditional lidar 3D information acquisition and passive hyperspectral imaging technology, and it can achieve integrated imaging detection with a high spatial and hyperspectral resolution. Thus, it has become an important future direction of Earth surface remote sensing technology. This article introduces the design and development of an airborne hyperspectral imaging lidar system. The hyperspectral lidar adopts a focal plane splitting method, combined with an array of 168 optical fibers, to couple wide-spectral-range laser echo signals one by one to the corresponding single tube detector, achieving efficient splitting and precise coupling of supercontinuum laser pulse echo signals. This article proposes a fast synchronous calibration method that is suitable for hyperspectral imaging lidar systems. Results show that the spectral range of the hyperspectral lidar system is 400-900 nm, and the spectral resolution of single-fiber detection is greater than 3 nm. Notably, this article focuses on analyzing the abnormal detection channels based on the calibration results. With the test results of adjacent channels combined, the reason for the abnormal spectral bandwidth of channel 17 is analyzed as an example. This research points out the direction for verifying the design parameters of the hyperspectral lidar prototype and lays an important foundation for airborne flight test of the hyperspectral lidar.
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3
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Staffas T, Elshaari A, Zwiller V. Frequency modulated continuous wave and time of flight LIDAR with single photons: a comparison. OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 32:7332-7341. [PMID: 38439416 DOI: 10.1364/oe.508004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we compare the two prominent Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) technologies: Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) and Time of Flight (ToF). By constructing a setup capable of performing both LIDAR methods at the single photon level using a Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detector (SNSPD), we compare the accuracy and investigate the dependence of the resulting images and accuracy on the signal power and the corresponding signal to noise ratio. We demonstrate that both LIDAR methods are able to reconstruct 3D environments with a signal-to-noise ratio as low as 0.03. However, the accuracy of FMCW LIDAR is shown to degrade in the low photon regime, while ToF LIDAR accuracy is shown to be stable across the same range. Lastly, we use a median de-noising convolution filter to effectively combat the typical "salt and pepper" noise found in LIDAR images, further enhancing the performance of both methods.
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4
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Yang JW, Peng TY, Clarke DDA, Bello FD, Chen JW, Yeh HC, Syong WR, Liang CT, Hess O, Lu YJ. Nanoscale Gap-Plasmon-Enhanced Superconducting Photon Detectors at Single-Photon Level. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:11387-11394. [PMID: 37906586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c01703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
With a growing demand for detecting light at the single-photon level in various fields, researchers are focused on optimizing the performance of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) by using multiple approaches. However, input light coupling for visible light has remained a challenge in the development of efficient SSPDs. To overcome these limitations, we developed a novel system that integrates NbN superconducting microwire photon detectors (SMPDs) with gap-plasmon resonators to improve the photon detection efficiency to 98% while preserving all detector performance features, such as polarization insensitivity. The plasmonic SMPDs exhibit a hot-belt effect that generates a nonlinear photoresponse in the visible range operated at 9 K (∼0.64Tc), resulting in a 233-fold increase in phonon-electron interaction factor (γ) compared to pristine SMPDs at resonance under CW illumination. These findings open up new opportunities for ultrasensitive single-photon detection in areas like quantum information processing, quantum optics, imaging, and sensing at visible wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Wei Yang
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Yu Peng
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Daniel D A Clarke
- School of Physics and CRANN Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2 D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Frank Daniel Bello
- School of Physics and CRANN Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2 D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Jia-Wern Chen
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Chen Yeh
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ren Syong
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Te Liang
- Graduate Institute of Applied Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ortwin Hess
- School of Physics and CRANN Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2 D02 PN40, Ireland
- Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, SW7 2AZ London, United Kingdom
| | - Yu-Jung Lu
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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5
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Dupont H, Guillemot L, Loiko P, Solé RM, Mateos X, Aguiló M, Díaz F, Braud A, Camy P, Georges P, Druon F. Cascade laser optimization for 3H 4 → 3H 5 and 3F 4 → 3H 6 sequent transitions in Tm 3+-doped materials. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:34201-34212. [PMID: 37859181 DOI: 10.1364/oe.501585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
We study a cascade laser scheme involving the 3H4 → 3H5 and 3F4 → 3H6 consecutive transitions in Tm3+-doped materials as a promising technique to favor laser emission at 2.3 µm. We examine the conditions in terms of the Tm3+ doping levels for which the cascade laser is beneficial or not. For this, Tm:LiYF4 lasers based on crystals with several doping levels in the range of 2.5 - 6 at.% with and without cascade laser are studied. For low doping of 2.5 at.% Tm3+, adding the laser emission at 1.9 µm allows to double the output power at 2.3 µm, whereas for high doping of 6 at.%, allowing the laser to operate at 1.9 µm totally suppresses the laser emission at 2.3 µm. An analytical model is developed and confronted with experimental results to predict this doping-dependent phenomenon and forecast the potential benefits. This study of cascade laser emission on the 3H4→ 3H5 and 3F4→ 3H6 transitions versus the Tm3+ doping level is finally extended to other well-known Tm3+-doped laser materials.
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Morova Y, Ardalı E, Denker B, Galagan B, Sverchkov S, Sennaroglu A. Broadly tunable continuous wave 2.3-µm Tm 3+:tellurite bulk glass laser. OPTICS LETTERS 2023; 48:4681-4684. [PMID: 37656585 DOI: 10.1364/ol.498797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
We report, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, a continuous wave trivalent thulium ion (Tm3+)-doped bulk glass near 2.3 µm. In the experiments, a bulk Tm3+-doped tellurite glass with the stoichiometric composition of 74TeO2-12ZnO-4La2O3-10Na2O (Tm3+:TZLN) was used. Lasing operation was achieved by using an x-fold cavity at the free-running wavelength of 2303 nm. The maximum slope efficiency of 6.2% was obtained with respect to the absorbed pump power with a 1% transmitting output coupler. In this case, as high as 100-mW output power was generated with 2.2 W of absorbed pump power. Continuous, broad tuning was achieved from 2233 nm to 2400 nm. The excitation spectrum of the laser was also investigated and 2.3-µm lasing was obtained by varying the pump wavelength over the 773-809-nm range. The absorption cross section was determined to be 4.4 × 10-21 cm2, based on open-aperture z-scan measurement. By using the laser efficiency data, the emission cross section of the Tm3+:TZLN glass was further determined to be 1.3 × 10-20 cm2 at 2.3 µm.
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7
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Remis A, Monge-Bartolome L, Paparella M, Gilbert A, Boissier G, Grande M, Blake A, O'Faolain L, Cerutti L, Rodriguez JB, Tournié E. Unlocking the monolithic integration scenario: optical coupling between GaSb diode lasers epitaxially grown on patterned Si substrates and passive SiN waveguides. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2023; 12:150. [PMID: 37328485 PMCID: PMC10276042 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-023-01185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Silicon (Si) photonics has recently emerged as a key enabling technology in many application fields thanks to the mature Si process technology, the large silicon wafer size, and promising Si optical properties. The monolithic integration by direct epitaxy of III-V lasers and Si photonic devices on the same Si substrate has been considered for decades as the main obstacle to the realization of dense photonics chips. Despite considerable progress in the last decade, only discrete III-V lasers grown on bare Si wafers have been reported, whatever the wavelength and laser technology. Here we demonstrate the first semiconductor laser grown on a patterned Si photonics platform with light coupled into a waveguide. A mid-IR GaSb-based diode laser was directly grown on a pre-patterned Si photonics wafer equipped with SiN waveguides clad by SiO2. Growth and device fabrication challenges, arising from the template architecture, were overcome to demonstrate more than 10 mW outpower of emitted light in continuous wave operation at room temperature. In addition, around 10% of the light was coupled into the SiN waveguides, in good agreement with theoretical calculations for this butt-coupling configuration. This work lift an important building block and it paves the way for future low-cost, large-scale, fully integrated photonic chips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Remis
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Michele Paparella
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France
- Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Polytechnic University of Bari, 4 Via E. Orabona, IT- 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Audrey Gilbert
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France
| | - Guilhem Boissier
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France
| | - Marco Grande
- Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Polytechnic University of Bari, 4 Via E. Orabona, IT- 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Alan Blake
- Tyndall National Institute, Lee Maltings Complex, Dyke Parade, IR-T12R5CP, Cork, Ireland
| | - Liam O'Faolain
- Tyndall National Institute, Lee Maltings Complex, Dyke Parade, IR-T12R5CP, Cork, Ireland
- Centre for Advanced Photonics and Process Analysis, Munster Technological University, Bishopstown, IR-T12P928, Cork, Ireland
| | - Laurent Cerutti
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Eric Tournié
- IES, University of Montpellier, CNRS, F-34000, Montpellier, France.
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8
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China F, Yabuno M, Mima S, Miyajima S, Terai H, Miki S. Highly efficient NbTiN nanostrip single-photon detectors using dielectric multilayer cavities for a 2-µm wavelength band. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:20471-20479. [PMID: 37381441 DOI: 10.1364/oe.492957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
We report superconducting nanostrip single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) with dielectric multilayer cavities (DMCs) for a 2-µm wavelength. We designed a DMC composed of periodic SiO2/Si bilayers. Simulation results of finite element analysis showed that the optical absorptance of the NbTiN nanostrips on the DMC exceeded 95% at 2 µm. We fabricated SNSPDs with an active area of 30 µm × 30 µm, which was sufficiently large to couple with a single-mode fiber of 2 µm. The fabricated SNSPDs were evaluated using a sorption-based cryocooler at a controlled temperature. We carefully verified the sensitivity of the power meter and calibrated the optical attenuators to accurately measure the system detection efficiency (SDE) at 2 µm. When the SNSPD was connected to an optical system via a spliced optical fiber, a high SDE of 84.1% was observed at 0.76 K. We also estimated the measurement uncertainty of the SDE as ±5.08% by considering all possible uncertainties in the SDE measurements.
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9
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Dupont H, Loiko P, Tyazhev A, Giordano L, Pan Z, Chu H, Li D, Viana B, Hideur A, Guillemot L, Braud A, Camy P, Georges P, Druon F. Tm:CALGO lasers at 2.32 µm: cascade lasing and upconversion pumping. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:18751-18764. [PMID: 37381308 DOI: 10.1364/oe.487590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
We report on the first laser operation of a disordered Tm:CaGdAlO4 crystal on the 3H4 → 3H5 transition. Under direct pumping at 0.79 µm, it generates 264 mW at 2.32 µm with a slope efficiency of 13.9% and 22.5% vs. incident and absorbed pump power, respectively, and a linear polarization (σ). Two strategies to overcome the bottleneck effect of the metastable 3F4 Tm3+ state leading to the ground-state bleaching are exploited: cascade lasing on the 3H4 → 3H5 and 3F4 → 3H6 transitions and dual-wavelength pumping at 0.79 and 1.05 µm combining the direct and upconversion pumping schemes. The cascade Tm-laser generates a maximum output power of 585 mW at 1.77 µm (3F4 → 3H6) and 2.32 µm (3H4 → 3H5) with a higher slope efficiency of 28.3% and a lower laser threshold of 1.43 W, out of which 332 mW are achieved at 2.32 µm. Under dual-wavelength pumping, further power scaling to 357 mW at at 2.32 µm is observed at the expense of increased laser threshold. To support the upconversion pumping experiment, excited-state absorption spectra of Tm3+ ions for the 3F4 → 3F2,3 and 3F4 → 3H4 transitions are measured for polarized light. Tm3+ ions in CaGdAlO4 exhibit broadband emission at 2.3 - 2.5 µm making this crystal promising for ultrashort pulse generation.
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10
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Jiang PY, Li ZP, Ye WL, Hong Y, Dai C, Huang X, Xi SQ, Lu J, Cui DJ, Cao Y, Xu F, Pan JW. Long range 3D imaging through atmospheric obscurants using array-based single-photon LiDAR. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:16054-16066. [PMID: 37157692 DOI: 10.1364/oe.487560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Single-photon light detection and ranging (LiDAR) has emerged as a strong candidate technology for active imaging applications. In particular, the single-photon sensitivity and picosecond timing resolution permits high-precision three-dimensional (3D) imaging capability through atmospheric obscurants including fog, haze and smoke. Here we demonstrate an array-based single-photon LiDAR system, which is capable of performing 3D imaging in atmospheric obscurant over long ranges. By adopting the optical optimization of system and the photon-efficient imaging algorithm, we acquire depth and intensity images through dense fog equivalent to 2.74 attenuation lengths at distances of 13.4 km and 20.0 km. Furthermore, we demonstrate real-time 3D imaging for moving targets at 20 frames per second in mist weather conditions over 10.5 km. The results indicate great potential for practical applications of vehicle navigation and target recognition in challenging weather.
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11
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Dupont H, Guillemot L, Loiko P, Braud A, Doualan JL, Camy P, Georges P, Druon F. Dual-wavelength-pumping of mid-infrared Tm:YLF laser at 2.3 µm: demonstration of pump seeding and recycling processes. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:32141-32150. [PMID: 36242282 DOI: 10.1364/oe.468695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Upconversion pumping of thulium lasers emitting around 2.3 µm (the 3H4 → 3H5 transition) has recently attracted a lot of attention as it is compatible with the mature Yb-laser technology. To explore this possibility, we built a mid-infrared Tm:LiYF4 laser pumped by an Yb:CaF2 laser at 1.05 µm delivering an output power of 110 mW at 2.31 µm for a maximum incident pump power of 2.0 W. A strong absorption issue appeared in the Tm laser: the slope efficiency vs. the incident pump power was 7.6% while that vs. the absorbed pump power reached 29%. To overcome this issue, a dual-wavelength pumping at 0.78 µm and 1.05 µm was explored (combining both the direct and upconversion pumping schemes). The reciprocal interplay between the two pumps was studied to evaluate their benefits in terms of the pump absorption and laser efficiency. We observed an interesting decrease of the laser threshold for upconversion pumping when adding a small fraction of the direct pump revealing a seeding effect for the excited-state absorption from the metastable 3F4 level. A recycling process of this manifold by excited-state absorption in the 3F4 → 3F2,3 loop was also observed. The pump absorption seeding is a viable route for the development of low-threshold upconversion pumped thulium lasers.
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12
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Colangelo M, Walter AB, Korzh BA, Schmidt E, Bumble B, Lita AE, Beyer AD, Allmaras JP, Briggs RM, Kozorezov AG, Wollman EE, Shaw MD, Berggren KK. Large-Area Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors for Operation at Wavelengths up to 7.4 μm. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:5667-5673. [PMID: 35848767 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c05012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The optimization of superconducting thin-films has pushed the sensitivity of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) to the mid-infrared (mid-IR). Earlier demonstrations have shown that straight tungsten silicide nanowires can achieve unity internal detection efficiency (IDE) up to λ = 10 μm. For a high system detection efficiency (SDE), the active area needs to be increased, but material nonuniformity and nanofabrication-induced constrictions make mid-IR large-area meanders challenging to yield. In this work, we improve the sensitivity of superconducting materials and optimize a high-resolution nanofabrication process to demonstrate large-area SNSPDs with unity IDE at 7.4 μm. Our approach yields large-area meanders down to 50 nm width, with average line-width roughness below 10%, and with a lower impact from constrictions compared to previous demonstrations. Our methods pave the way to high-efficiency SNSPDs in the mid-IR band with potential impacts on astronomy, imaging, and physical chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Alexander B Walter
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Boris A Korzh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Ekkehart Schmidt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Bruce Bumble
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Adriana E Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Andrew D Beyer
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Jason P Allmaras
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Ryan M Briggs
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | | | - Emma E Wollman
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Matthew D Shaw
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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13
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Abstract
The current state of the art of single-photon detectors operating in the mid-infrared wavelength range is reported in this review. These devices are essential for a wide range of applications, such as mid-infrared quantum communications, sensing, and metrology, which require detectors with high detection efficiency, low dark count rates, and low dead times. The technological challenge of moving from the well-performing and commercially available near-infrared single-photon detectors to mid-infrared detection is discussed. Different approaches are explored, spanning from the stoichiometric or geometric engineering of a large variety of materials for infrared applications to the exploitation of alternative novel materials and the implementation of proper detection schemes. The three most promising solutions are described in detail: superconductive nanowires, avalanche photodiodes, and photovoltaic detectors.
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14
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Wang H, Guo J, Miao J, Luo W, Gu Y, Xie R, Wang F, Zhang L, Wang P, Hu W. Emerging Single-Photon Detectors Based on Low-Dimensional Materials. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2103963. [PMID: 34632717 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202103963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Single-photon detectors (SPDs) that can sense individual photons are the most sensitive instruments for photodetection. Established SPDs such as conventional silicon or III-V compound semiconductor avalanche diodes and photomultiplier tubes have been used in a wide range of time-correlated photon-counting applications, including quantum information technologies, in vivo biomedical imaging, time-of-flight 3D scanners, and deep-space optical communications. However, further development of these fields requires more sophisticated detectors with high detection efficiency, fast response, and photon-number-resolving ability, etc. Thereby, significant efforts have been made to improve the performance of conventional SPDs and to develop new photon-counting technologies. In this review, the working mechanisms and key performance metrics of conventional SPDs are first summarized. Then emerging photon-counting detectors (in the visible to infrared range) based on 0D quantum dots, 1D quantum nanowires, and 2D layered materials are discussed. These low-dimensional materials exhibit many exotic properties due to the quantum confinement effect. And photodetectors built from these nD-materials (n = 0, 1, 2) can potentially be used for ultra-weak light detection. By reviewing the status and discussing the challenges faced by SPDs, this review aims to provide future perspectives on the research directions of emerging photon-counting technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jiaxiang Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jinshui Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Wenjin Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Yue Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Runzhang Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Fang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Lili Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Peng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Weida Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310024, China
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15
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Widarsson M, Henriksson M, Barrett L, Pasiskevicius V, Laurell F. Room temperature photon-counting lidar at 3 µm. APPLIED OPTICS 2022; 61:884-889. [PMID: 35201056 DOI: 10.1364/ao.444963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A midinfrared single-photon-counting lidar at 3 µm is presented. The 3 µm photons were upconverted to 790 nm in a periodically poled rubidium-doped KTiOPO4 crystal through intracavity mixing inside a 1064 nm Nd:YVO4 laser and detected using a conventional silicon single-photon avalanche detector (SPAD). The lidar system could distinguish 1 mm deep features on a diffusely reflecting target, limited by the SPAD and time-tagging electronics. This technique could easily be extended to longer wavelengths within the transparency of the nonlinear crystal.
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Yu S, Zhang Z, Xia H, Dou X, Wu T, Hu Y, Li M, Shangguan M, Wei T, Zhao L, Wang L, Jiang P, Zhang C, You L, Tao L, Qiu J. Photon-counting distributed free-space spectroscopy. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2021; 10:212. [PMID: 34642297 PMCID: PMC8511071 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-021-00650-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Spectroscopy is a well-established nonintrusive tool that has played an important role in identifying and quantifying substances, from quantum descriptions to chemical and biomedical diagnostics. Challenges exist in accurate spectrum analysis in free space, which hinders us from understanding the composition of multiple gases and the chemical processes in the atmosphere. A photon-counting distributed free-space spectroscopy is proposed and demonstrated using lidar technique, incorporating a comb-referenced frequency-scanning laser and a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector. It is suitable for remote spectrum analysis with a range resolution over a wide band. As an example, a continuous field experiment is carried out over 72 h to obtain the spectra of carbon dioxide (CO2) and semi-heavy water (HDO, isotopic water vapor) in 6 km, with a range resolution of 60 m and a time resolution of 10 min. Compared to the methods that obtain only column-integrated spectra over kilometer-scale, the range resolution is improved by 2-3 orders of magnitude in this work. The CO2 and HDO concentrations are retrieved from the spectra acquired with uncertainties as low as ±1.2% and ±14.3%, respectively. This method holds much promise for increasing knowledge of atmospheric environment and chemistry researches, especially in terms of the evolution of complex molecular spectra in open areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saifen Yu
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
- School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 210044, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
- School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 210044, Nanjing, China
| | - Haiyun Xia
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.
- School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 210044, Nanjing, China.
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, 230026, Heifei, China.
| | - Xiankang Dou
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, 230026, Heifei, China
| | - Tengfei Wu
- Changcheng Institute of Metrology & Measurement, Aviation Industry Corporation of China, 100095, Beijing, China
| | - Yihua Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pulsed Power Laser Technology, National University of Defense Technology, 230037, Hefei, China
| | - Manyi Li
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Mingjia Shangguan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Tianwen Wei
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Lijie Zhao
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Lu Wang
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Pu Jiang
- School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Chengjun Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 200050, Shanghai, China
| | - Lixing You
- Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 200050, Shanghai, China
| | - Leigang Tao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, 230026, Heifei, China
| | - Jiawei Qiu
- School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 210044, Nanjing, China
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Sun XQ, Zhang WJ, Zhang CJ, You LX, Xu GZ, Huang J, Zhou H, Li H, Wang Z, Xie XM. Polarization resolving and imaging with a single-photon sensitive superconducting nanowire array. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:11021-11036. [PMID: 33820223 DOI: 10.1364/oe.419627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) have attracted remarkable interest for visible and near-infrared single-photon detection due to their outstanding performance. However, conventional SNSPDs are generally used as binary photon-counting detectors. Another important characteristic of light, i.e., polarization, which can provide additional information of the object, has not been resolved using the standalone SNSPD. In this work, we present a first prototype of the polarimeter based on a four-pixel superconducting nanowire array, capable of resolving the polarization state of linearly-polarized light at the single-photon level. The detector array design is based on a division of focal plane configuration in which the orientation of each nanowire division (pixel) is offset by 45°. Each single nanowire pixel operates as a combination of a photon detector and almost linear polarization filter, with an average polarization extinction ratio of ∼10. The total system detection efficiency of the array is ∼1% at a total dark count rate of 680 cps, with a timing jitter of 126 ps, when the detector array is free-space coupled and illuminated with 1550-nm photons. The mean errors of the measured angle of polarization and degree of linear polarization were about -3° and 0.12, respectively. Furthermore, we successfully demonstrated polarization imaging at low-light level using the proposed detector. Our results pave the way for the development of a single-photon sensitive, fast, and large-scale integrated polarization polarimeter or imager. Such detector may find promising application in photon-starved polarization resolving and imaging with high spatial and temporal resolution.
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Morozov P, Lukina M, Shirmanova M, Divochiy A, Dudenkova V, Gol'tsman GN, Becker W, Shcheslavskiy VI. Singlet oxygen phosphorescence imaging by superconducting single-photon detector and time-correlated single-photon counting. OPTICS LETTERS 2021; 46:1217-1220. [PMID: 33720151 DOI: 10.1364/ol.415229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This Letter presents, to the best of our knowledge, a novel optical configuration for direct time-resolved measurements of luminescence from singlet oxygen, both in solutions and from cultured cells on photodynamic therapy. The system is based on the superconducting single-photon detector, coupled to the confocal scanner that is modified for the near-infrared measurements. The recording of a phosphorescence signal from singlet oxygen at 1270 nm has been done using time-correlated single-photon counting. The performance of the system is verified by measuring phosphorescence from singlet oxygen generated by the photosensitizers commonly used in photodynamic therapy: methylene blue and chlorin e6. The described system can be easily upgraded to the configuration when both phosphorescence from singlet oxygen and fluorescence from the cells can be detected in the imaging mode. Thus, co-localization of the signal from singlet oxygen with the areas inside the cells can be done.
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Verma VB, Korzh B, Walter AB, Lita AE, Briggs RM, Colangelo M, Zhai Y, Wollman EE, Beyer AD, Allmaras JP, Vora H, Zhu D, Schmidt E, Kozorezov AG, Berggren KK, Mirin RP, Nam SW, Shaw MD. Single-photon detection in the mid-infrared up to 10 μm wavelength using tungsten silicide superconducting nanowire detectors. APL PHOTONICS 2021; 6:10.1063/5.0048049. [PMID: 37621960 PMCID: PMC10448953 DOI: 10.1063/5.0048049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
We developed superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors based on tungsten silicide, which show saturated internal detection efficiency up to a wavelength of 10 μm. These detectors are promising for applications in the mid-infrared requiring sub-nanosecond timing, ultra-high gain stability, low dark counts, and high efficiency, such as chemical sensing, LIDAR, dark matter searches, and exoplanet spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. B. Verma
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - B. Korzh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - A. B. Walter
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - A. E. Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - R. M. Briggs
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - M. Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Y. Zhai
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - E. E. Wollman
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - A. D. Beyer
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - J. P. Allmaras
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - H. Vora
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - D. Zhu
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - E. Schmidt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
| | - A. G. Kozorezov
- Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - K. K. Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - R. P. Mirin
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - S. W. Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - M. D. Shaw
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, California 91109, USA
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Widarsson M, Henriksson M, Mutter P, Canalias C, Pasiskevicius V, Laurell F. High resolution and sensitivity up-conversion mid-infrared photon-counting LIDAR. APPLIED OPTICS 2020; 59:2365-2369. [PMID: 32225777 DOI: 10.1364/ao.383907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A single-photon-counting mid-infrared LIDAR is presented. 2.4 µm mid-infrared photons were up-converted to 737 nm by intra-cavity mixing in a periodically poled rubidium-doped KTiOPO4 crystal inside a Nd:YVO4 laser. The up-converted photons were detected by a Si single-photon avalanche photodiode (SPAD). A temporal resolution of 42 ps and a dark count rate of 500 Hz were achieved, limited by the SPAD and ambient light leakage. It allowed for detection of two targets separated by only a few millimeters. This technique is easily extendable to longer wavelengths, limited primarily by the nonlinear crystal transparency.
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