Doppler angle and flow velocity mapping by combined Doppler shift and Doppler bandwidth measurements in optical Doppler tomography

Quantitative depth-resolved microcirculation imaging with optical coherence tomography angiography (Part Ι): Blood flow velocity imaging

The research goal of the microvascular network imaging with OCT angiography is to achieve depth-resolved blood flow and vessel imaging in vivo in the clinical management of patents. In this review, we review the main phenomena that have been explored in OCT to image the blood flow velocity vector and the vessels of the microcirculation within living tissues. Parameters that limit the accurate measurements of blood flow velocity are then considered. Finally, initial clinical diagnosis applications and future developments of OCT flow images are discussed.

Spectrometer calibration for spectroscopic Fourier domain optical coherence tomography

We propose a simple and robust procedure for Fourier domain optical coherence tomography (FdOCT) that allows to linearize the detected FdOCT spectra to wavenumber domain and, at the same time, to determine the wavelength of light for each point of detected spectrum. We show that in this approach it is possible to use any measurable physical quantity that has linear dependency on wavenumber and can be extracted from spectral fringes. The actual values of the measured quantity have no importance for the algorithm and do not need to be known at any stage of the procedure. As example we calibrate a spectral OCT spectrometer using Doppler frequency. The technique of spectral calibration can be in principle adapted to of all kind of Fourier domain OCT devices.

An overview of optical coherence tomography for ovarian tissue imaging and characterization

Ovarian cancer has the lowest survival rate among all the gynecologic cancers because it is predominantly diagnosed at late stages due to the lack of reliable symptoms and efficacious screening techniques. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an emerging technique that provides high-resolution images of biological tissue in real time, and demonstrates great potential for imaging of ovarian tissue. In this article, we review OCT studies for visualization and diagnosis of human ovaries as well as quantitative extraction of ovarian tissue optical properties for classifying normal and malignant ovaries. OCT combined with other imaging modalities to further improve ovarian tissue diagnosis is also reviewed.

Dynamic light scattering arising from flowing Brownian particles: analytical model in optical coherence tomography conditions

The statistical model of scattered by flowing Brownian particles coherent radiation is suggested. The model includes the random Doppler shifts caused by particle Brownian motion and the speckle fluctuations caused primarily by the flow motion of particles. Analytical expressions are obtained for the correlation function, power spectrum, and spectral width of scattered radiation in the imaging geometry typically used in optical coherence tomography (OCT). It is shown that the spectral density has the Voigt shape, a well-known spectral profile from atomic and molecular spectroscopy. The approach enables the choice of the experimental regimes for the measurement of Brownian particle motion parameters even in the presence of flow. These regimes are characterized by the dominant contribution of Brownian motion in the spectral width of the flow-caused Doppler shift component. Further, the new formalism suggests that prior attempts to extract transverse flow velocity are only valid at near-perpendicular geometry. The impact of the small scattering volume contributing to the OCT signal is also discussed.

Optical coherence Doppler tomography for quantitative cerebral blood flow imaging

Optical coherence Doppler tomography (ODT) is a promising neurotechnique that permits 3D imaging of the cerebral blood flow (CBF) network; however, quantitative CBF velocity (CBFv) imaging remains challenging. Here we present a simple phase summation method to enhance slow capillary flow detection sensitivity without sacrificing dynamic range for fast flow and vessel tracking to improve angle correction for absolute CBFv quantification. Flow phantom validation indicated that the CBFv quantification accuracy increased from 15% to 91% and the coefficient of variation (CV) decreased 9.3-fold; in vivo mouse brain validation showed that CV decreased 4.4-/10.8- fold for venular/arteriolar flows. ODT was able to identify cocaine-elicited microischemia and quantify CBFv disruption in branch vessels and capillaries that otherwise would have not been possible.

Localized measurement of longitudinal and transverse flow velocities in colloidal suspensions using optical coherence tomography

We report on localized measurement of the longitudinal and transverse flow velocities in a colloidal suspension using optical coherence tomography. We present a model for the path-length resolved autocorrelation function including diffusion and flow, which we experimentally verify. For flow that is not perpendicular to the incident beam, the longitudinal velocity gradient over the coherence gate causes additional decorrelation, which is described by our model. We demonstrate simultaneous imaging of sample morphology and longitudinal and transverse flow at micrometer scale in a single measurement.

Quantitative lateral and axial flow imaging with optical coherence microscopy and tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and optical coherence microscopy (OCM) allow the acquisition of quantitative three-dimensional axial flow by estimating the Doppler shift caused by moving scatterers. Measuring the velocity of red blood cells is currently the principal application of these methods. In many biological tissues, blood flow is often perpendicular to the optical axis, creating the need for a quantitative measurement of lateral flow. Previous work has shown that lateral flow can be measured from the Doppler bandwidth, albeit only for simplified optical systems. In this work, we present a generalized model to analyze the influence of relevant OCT/OCM system parameters such as light source spectrum, numerical aperture and beam geometry on the Doppler spectrum. Our analysis results in a general framework relating the mean and variance of the Doppler frequency to the axial and lateral flow velocity components. Based on this model, we present an optimized acquisition protocol and algorithm to reconstruct quantitative measurements of lateral and axial flow from the Doppler spectrum for any given OCT/OCM system. To validate this approach, Doppler spectrum analysis is employed to quantitatively measure flow in a capillary with both extended focus OCM and OCT.

OCT methods for capillary velocimetry

TO DATE, TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF OCT TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED FOR IMAGING HEMODYNAMICS: Doppler OCT and OCT angiography. Doppler OCT can measure axial velocity profiles and flow in arteries and veins, while OCT angiography can determine vascular morphology, tone, and presence or absence of red blood cell (RBC) perfusion. However, neither method can quantify RBC velocity in capillaries, where RBC flow is typically transverse to the probe beam and single-file. Here, we describe new methods that potentially address these limitations. Firstly, we describe a complex-valued OCT signal in terms of a static scattering component, dynamic scattering component, and noise. Secondly, we propose that the time scale of random fluctuations in the dynamic scattering component are related to red blood cell velocity. Analysis was performed along the slow axis of repeated B-scans to parallelize measurements. We correlate our purported velocity measurements against two-photon microscopy measurements of RBC velocity, and investigate changes during hypercapnia. Finally, we image the ischemic stroke penumbra during distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO), where OCT velocimetry methods provide additional insight that is not afforded by either Doppler OCT or OCT angiography.

Volumetric and quantitative imaging of retinal blood flow in rats with optical microangiography

In this paper, we present methods for 3D visualization and quantitative measurements of retinal blood flow in rats by the use of optical microangiography imaging technique (OMAG). We use ultrahigh sensitive OMAG to provide high-quality 3D RBF perfusion maps in the rat eye, from which the Doppler angle, as well as the diameters of blood vessels, are evaluated. Estimation of flow velocity (i.e. axial flow velocity) is achieved by the use of Doppler OMAG, which has its origins in phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography. The measurements of the Doppler angle, vessel size, and the axial velocity lead to the quantitative assessment of the absolute flow velocity and the blood flow rate in selected retinal vessels. We demonstrate the feasibility of OMAG to provide 3D microangiograms and quantitative assessment of retinal blood flow in a rat model subjected to raised intra-ocular pressure (IOP). We show that OMAG is capable of monitoring the longitudinal response of absolute blood velocity and flow rate of retinal blood vessels to increased IOP in the rat, demonstrating its usefulness for ophthalmological research.

Transit-time analysis based on delay-encoded beam shape for velocity vector quantification by spectral-domain Doppler optical coherence tomography

We propose a transit-time based method to ascertain the azimuth angle of a velocity vector by spectral-domain Doppler optical coherence tomography (DOCT), so that three-dimensional (3-D) velocity vector can be quantified. A custom-designed slit plate with predetermined slit orientation is placed into the sample beam to create three delay-encoded sub-beams of different beam shape for sample probing. Based on the transit-time analysis for Doppler bandwidth, the azimuth angle within 90 degrees range is evaluated by exploitation of the complex signals corresponding to three path length delays. 3-D velocity vector is quantified through further estimating of Doppler angle and flow velocity by combined Doppler shift and Doppler bandwidth measurements. The feasibility of the method is demonstrated by good agreement between the determined azimuth angles and the preset ones, and further confirmed by velocity vector measurement of flowing solution inside a capillary tube.

Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT

We introduce a new type of scanning protocols, called segmented protocols, which enable extracting multi-range flow velocity information from a single Spectral OCT data set. The protocols are evaluated using a well defined flow in a glass capillary. As an example of in vivo studies, we demonstrate two- and three-dimensional imaging of the retinal vascular system in the eyes of healthy volunteers. The flow velocity detection is performed using a method of Joint Spectral and Time domain OCT. Velocity ranging is demonstrated in imaging of retinal vasculature in the macular region and in the optic disk area characterized by different flow velocity values. Additionally, an enhanced visualization of retinal capillary network is presented in the close proximity to macula.

Hybrid positron detection and optical coherence tomography system: design, calibration, and experimental validation with rabbit atherosclerotic models

We evaluate the performance of our novel hybrid optical coherence tomography (OCT) and scintillating probe, demonstrate simultaneous OCT imaging and scintillating detection, and validate the system using an atherosclerotic rabbit model. Preliminary data obtained from the rabbit model suggest that our prototype positron probe detects local uptake of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) labeled with 18F positron (beta) radionuclide emitter, and the high-uptake regions correlate with sites of injury and extensive atherosclerosis areas. Preliminary data also suggest that coregistered high-resolution OCT images provide imaging of detailed plaque microstructures, which cannot be resolved by positron detection.

Quantifying labial blood flow using optical Doppler tomography

OBJECTIVES

Changes in the oral microvasculature occur in a variety of diseases. Optical Doppler tomography (ODT) combines laser Doppler flowmetry with optical coherence tomography (OCT) to produce high-resolution tomographic images of biological tissues that also detect the velocity and direction of blood flow. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of ODT to image labial blood flow. A prototype ODT imaging system was constructed that characterized and measured labial blood flow in healthy subjects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prototype ODT instrument was constructed using a diode light source with a central wavelength of 1300 nanometers, a 40-nanometer spectral width and 2.4 microwatts output power. To verify the accuracy of the system, the flow rates of a phantom material (Intralipid) pumped through a capillary tube at various speeds was measured. To evaluate the clinical feasibility of the ODT prototye, the mucosal aspect of the upper and lower lips at the midline was imaged in 9 healthy volunteers. The sample arm of the instrument consisted of a fiberoptic probe with a 2-mm in diameter polished glass lens attached to the end. The probe was placed approximately 3 mm from the mucosal surface of the lip and oriented perpendicular to the surface. A motorized translation stage moved the fiber in a superior to inferior direction while the subject's head was stabilized by placing the chin into a chin rest. Imaging time for a 12-mm x 2.5-mm scan was approximately 64 seconds.

RESULTS

The phantom experiments revealed that accuracy of this novel ODT prototype to measure flow was within 5%. In vivo labial blood flow velocity ranged from 11.8 to 43.1 mm/second in the upper lip and 8.2 to 53.2 mm/second in the lower lip. There were no statistically significant differences between flow rates in the upper and lower lips. OCT images and Doppler velocity signals were successfully integrated producing in vivo images of labial blood in all of the subjects (15 images). The resulting cross-sectional images revealed microscopic details of labial structures and, to the best of our knowledge, are the first ODT images of the labial microvasculature.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this in vivo study prove the feasibility of ODT to quantify labial blood flow and produce high spatial resolution images specifically localizing vessels anatomically. ODT provides both flow speed and flow direction information. ODT is noninvasive and offers the advantages of high volumetric flow sensitivity.

Quantifying Doppler angle and mapping flow velocity by a combination of Doppler-shift and Doppler-bandwidth measurements in optical Doppler tomography

Recently we introduced a novel procedure that estimates Doppler angle and flow velocity simultaneously by combining Doppler-shift and Doppler-bandwidth measurements with a conventional single-beam optical Doppler tomography device. Here we validate this method experimentally with two Intralipid flow setups that correspond to fixed Doppler angle and fixed flow speed. One set of data has a fixed flow speed of 53.6 mm/s with a Doppler angle that changes from 56 degrees to 90 degrees; the other has a fixed Doppler angle of 80 degrees with flow speed that changes from 18.5 to 141.9 mm/s. As obtained with the method introduced here, the Doppler-angle estimation accuracies of the two sets are 97.6% and 98.2%, respectively, and the estimation accuracies of flow speeds of the two sets are 94.3% and 90.4%, respectively.