Insight into the regulation of glycan synthesis in Drosophila chaoptin based on mass spectrometry

Evolutionarily conserved and species-specific glycoproteins in the N-glycoproteomes of diverse insect species

N-glycosylation is one of the most abundant and conserved protein modifications in eukaryotes. The attachment of N-glycans to proteins can modulate their properties and influences numerous important biological processes, such as protein folding and cellular attachment. Recently, it has been shown that protein N-glycosylation plays a vital role in insect development and survival, which makes the glycans an interesting target for pest control. Despite the importance of protein N-glycosylation in insects, knowledge about insect N-glycoproteomes is scarce. To fill this gap, the N-glycosites were identified in proteins from three major pest insects, spanning different insect orders and diverging in post-embryonic development, feeding mechanism and evolutionary ancestry: Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera), Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera) and Acyrthosiphon pisum (Hemiptera). The N-glyco-FASP method for isolation of N-glycopeptides was optimized to study the insect N-glycosites and allowed the identification of 889 N-glycosylation sites in T. castaneum, 941 in D. melanogaster and 1338 in A. pisum. Although a large set of the corresponding glycoproteins is shared among the three insects, species- and order-specific glycoproteins were also identified. The functionality of the insect glycoproteins together with the conservation of the N-glycosites throughout evolution is discussed. This information can help in the elaboration of novel pest insect control strategies based on interference in insect glycosylation.

Improvement of the glycoproteomic toolbox with the discovery of a unique C-terminal cleavage specificity of flavastacin for N-glycosylated asparagine

To determine all potential N-glycosylation sites of a glycoprotein, one central aspect of every bottom-up N-glycoproteomic strategy is to generate suitable N-glycopeptides that can be detected and analyzed by mass spectrometry. Specific proteases, such as trypsin, bear the potential of generating N-glycopeptides that either carry more than one N-glycosylation site or are too long to be readily analyzed by mass spectrometry- both due to the lack of tryptic cleavage sites near the N-glycosylation site. Here, we present a newly identified cleavage specificity of flavastacin, a protease from Flavobacterium menigosepticum, which - up to now - was only reported to cleave peptide bonds N-terminal to aspartic acid residues. In contrast to literature, we could not confirm this N-terminal specificity of flavastacin for aspartic acid. However, for the first time, we show a unique cleavage specificity of flavastacin towards the C-terminus of N-glycosylated asparagine residues. Implemented in an N-glycoproteomic workflow the use of flavastacin can thus not only render data analysis much easier, it can also significantly increase the confidence of MS-based N-glycoproteomic analyses. We demonstrate this newly discovered specificity of flavastacin by in-depth LC-MS(/MS) analysis of complex-type glycosylated human lactotransferrin and bovine serum albumin peptides and N-glycopeptides that were generated by trypsin and flavastacin digestion. Following to this work, further elucidation of the efficiency, specificity and mode of action of flavastacin is needed, but we believe that our discovery has great potential to facilitate and improve the characterization of N-glycoproteomes.

Diversity and functions of protein glycosylation in insects

The majority of proteins is modified with carbohydrate structures. This modification, called glycosylation, was shown to be crucial for protein folding, stability and subcellular location, as well as protein-protein interactions, recognition and signaling. Protein glycosylation is involved in multiple physiological processes, including embryonic development, growth, circadian rhythms, cell attachment as well as maintenance of organ structure, immunity and fertility. Although the general principles of glycosylation are similar among eukaryotic organisms, insects synthesize a distinct repertoire of glycan structures compared to plants and vertebrates. Consequently, a number of unique insect glycans mediate functions specific to this class of invertebrates. For instance, the core α1,3-fucosylation of N-glycans is absent in vertebrates, while in insects this modification is crucial for the development of wings and the nervous system. At present, most of the data on insect glycobiology comes from research in Drosophila. Yet, progressively more information on the glycan structures and the importance of glycosylation in other insects like beetles, caterpillars, aphids and bees is becoming available. This review gives a summary of the current knowledge and recent progress related to glycan diversity and function(s) of protein glycosylation in insects. We focus on N- and O-glycosylation, their synthesis, physiological role(s), as well as the molecular and biochemical basis of these processes.

Protein N-glycosylation and N-glycan trimming are required for postembryonic development of the pest beetle Tribolium castaneum

In holometabolous insects the transition from larva to adult requires a complete body reorganization and relies on N-glycosylated proteins. N-glycosylation is an important posttranslational modification that influences protein activity but its impact on the metamorphosis has not been studied yet. Here we used the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, to perform a first comprehensive study on the involvement of the protein N-glycosylation pathway in metamorphosis. The transcript levels for genes encoding N-glycan processing enzymes increased during later developmental stages and, in turn, transition from larva to adult coincided with an enrichment of more extensively modified paucimannose glycans, including fucosylated ones. Blockage of N-glycan attachment resulted in larval mortality, while RNAi of α-glucosidases involved in early N-glycan trimming and quality control disrupted the larva to pupa transition. Additionally, simultaneous knockdown of multiple genes responsible for N-glycan processing towards paucimannose structures revealed their novel roles in pupal appendage formation and adult eclosion. Our findings revealed that, next to hormonal control, insect post-embryonic development and metamorphosis depend on protein N-glycan attachment and efficient N-glycan processing. Consequently, disruption of these processes could be an effective new approach for insect control.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update for 2009-2010

This review is the sixth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2010. General aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, arrays and fragmentation are covered in the first part of the review and applications to various structural typed constitutes the remainder. The main groups of compound that are discussed in this section are oligo and polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides and biopharmaceuticals. Many of these applications are presented in tabular form. Also discussed are medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions and applications to chemical synthesis.

The relationship between glycan structures and expression levels of an endoplasmic reticulum-resident glycoprotein, UDP-glucose: Glycoprotein glucosyltransferase 1

In this article, we report a relationship between glycan structures and expression levels of a recombinant ER-resident glycoprotein, uridine 5'-diphosphate-glucose: glycoprotein glucosyltransferase (UGGT1). The function of glycan structures attached to a glycoprotein is actively studied; however, the glycan structures of recombinant, and not endogenous, glycoproteins have not been examined. In this study, we indicate a relationship between the glycan structure and the level of protein expression. Expression levels were controlled utilizing a series of vectors (pFN21K, pFN22K, pFN23K, and pFN24K HaloTag CMV Flexi Vectors). Qualitative and semi-quantitative confirmation of glycan structures was achieved with tandem mass spectrometry. The results of this study indicate that glycan structures are similar to endogenous glycans at low expression levels.

Glycan structure and site of glycosylation in the ER-resident glycoprotein, uridine 5'-diphosphate-glucose: glycoprotein glucosyltransferases 1 from rat, porcine, bovine, and human

Here we report glycan structures and their position of attachment to a carrier protein, uridine 5'-diphosphate-glucose: glycoprotein glucosyltransferase (UGGT1), as detected using tandem mass spectrometry. UGGT1 acts as a folding sensor of newly synthesized glycosylated polypeptides in the endoplasmic reticulum, and the transferase itself is known to be glycosylated. The structure of glycan attached to UGGT1, however, has not been investigated. In this study, we reveal the site of glycosylation (N269) and the glycan structures (Hex5-8HexNAc2) in UGGT1 obtained from rat (Rattus norvegicus), pig (Sus scrofa), cow (Bos taurus), and human (Homo sapiens).

chaoptin, prominin, eyes shut and crumbs form a genetic network controlling the apical compartment of Drosophila photoreceptor cells

The apical surface of epithelial cells is often highly specialised to fulfil cell type-specific functions. Many epithelial cells expand their apical surface by forming microvilli, actin-based, finger-like membrane protrusions. The apical surface of Drosophila photoreceptor cells (PRCs) forms tightly packed microvilli, which are organised into the photosensitive rhabdomeres. As previously shown, the GPI-anchored adhesion protein Chaoptin is required for the stability of the microvilli, whereas the transmembrane protein Crumbs is essential for proper rhabdomere morphogenesis. Here we show that chaoptin synergises with crumbs to ensure optimal rhabdomere width. In addition, reduction of crumbs ameliorates morphogenetic defects observed in PRCs mutant for prominin and eyes shut, known antagonists of chaoptin. These results suggest that these four genes provide a balance of adhesion and anti-adhesion to maintain microvilli development and maintenance. Similar to crumbs mutant PRCs, PRCs devoid of prominin or eyes shut undergo light-dependent retinal degeneration. Given the observation that human orthologues of crumbs, prominin and eyes shut result in progressive retinal degeneration and blindness, the Drosophila eye is ideally suited to unravel the genetic and cellular mechanisms that ensure morphogenesis of PRCs and their maintenance under light-mediated stress.

Drosophila GPI-mannosyltransferase 2 is required for GPI anchor attachment and surface expression of chaoptin

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors are critical for the membrane attachment of a wide variety of essential signaling and cell adhesion proteins. The GPI anchor is a complex glycolipid structure that utilizes glycosylphosphatidylinositol-mannosyltransferases (GPI-MTs) for the addition of three core mannose residues during its biosynthesis. Here, we demonstrate that Drosophila GPI-MT2 is required for the GPI-mediated membrane attachment of several GPI-anchored proteins, including the photoreceptor-specific cell adhesion molecule, chaoptin. Mutations in gpi-mt2 lead to defects in chaoptin trafficking to the plasma membrane in Drosophila photoreceptor cells. In gpi-mt2 mutants, loss of sufficient chaoptin in the membrane leads to microvillar instability, photoreceptor cell pathology, and retinal degeneration. Finally, using site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified key amino acids that are essential for GPI-MT2 function and cell viability in Drosophila. Our findings on GPI-MT2 provide a mechanistic link between GPI anchor biosynthesis and protein trafficking in Drosophila and shed light on a novel mechanism for inherited retinal degeneration.

Diversity in protein glycosylation among insect species

BACKGROUND

A very common protein modification in multicellular organisms is protein glycosylation or the addition of carbohydrate structures to the peptide backbone. Although the Class of the Insecta is the largest animal taxon on Earth, almost all information concerning glycosylation in insects is derived from studies with only one species, namely the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this report, the differences in glycoproteomes between insects belonging to several economically important insect orders were studied. Using GNA (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin) affinity chromatography, different sets of glycoproteins with mannosyl-containing glycan structures were purified from the flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), the silkworm (Bombyx mori), the honeybee (Apis mellifera), the fruit fly (D. melanogaster) and the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). To identify and characterize the purified glycoproteins, LC-MS/MS analysis was performed. For all insect species, it was demonstrated that glycoproteins were related to a broad range of biological processes and molecular functions. Moreover, the majority of glycoproteins retained on the GNA column were unique to one particular insect species and only a few glycoproteins were present in the five different glycoprotein sets. Furthermore, these data support the hypothesis that insect glycoproteins can be decorated with mannosylated O-glycans.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The results presented here demonstrate that oligomannose N-glycosylation events are highly specific depending on the insect species. In addition, we also demonstrated that protein O-mannosylation in insect species may occur more frequently than currently believed.

Glycan analysis by modern instrumental methods

The oligosaccharides attached to proteins or lipids are among the most challenging analytical tasks due to their complexity and variety. Knowing the genes and enzymes responsible for their biosynthesis, a large but not unlimited number of different structures and isomers of such glycans can be imagined. Understanding of the biological role of structural variations requires the ability to unambiguously determine the identity and quantity of all glycan species. Here, we examine, which analytical strategies - with a certain high-throughput potential - may come near this ideal. After an expose of the relevant techniques, we try to depict how analytical raw data are translated into structural assignments using retention times, mass and fragment spectra. A method's ability to discriminate between the many conceivable isomeric structures together with the time, effort and sample amount needed for that purpose is suggested as a criterion for the comparative assessment of approaches and their evolutionary stages.

Identification of genes required for neural-specific glycosylation using functional genomics

Glycosylation plays crucial regulatory roles in various biological processes such as development, immunity, and neural functions. For example, α1,3-fucosylation, the addition of a fucose moiety abundant in Drosophila neural cells, is essential for neural development, function, and behavior. However, it remains largely unknown how neural-specific α1,3-fucosylation is regulated. In the present study, we searched for genes involved in the glycosylation of a neural-specific protein using a Drosophila RNAi library. We obtained 109 genes affecting glycosylation that clustered into nine functional groups. Among them, members of the RNA regulation group were enriched by a secondary screen that identified genes specifically regulating α1,3-fucosylation. Further analyses revealed that an RNA-binding protein, second mitotic wave missing (Swm), upregulates expression of the neural-specific glycosyltransferase FucTA and facilitates its mRNA export from the nucleus. This first large-scale genetic screen for glycosylation-related genes has revealed novel regulation of fucTA mRNA in neural cells.

The lectin riddle: glycoproteins fractionated from complex mixtures have similar glycomic profiles

One common method used for analyzing the glycoproteome is chromatography using multiple lectins that display different affinities toward oligosaccharide structures. Much has been done to determine lectin affinity using standard glycoproteins with known glycosylation; however, a knowledge of the selectivity and specificity of lectins exposed to complex mixtures of proteins is required if they are to be used as a means of studying the glycoproteome. In the present study, three lectins (Concanavalin A, Jacalin, and Wheat Germ Agglutinin) were used to fractionate glycoproteins from two different complex environments: (1) cell membranes and (2) plasma. Reproducible enrichment of glycoproteins from these samples has been shown to result from the combined use of these lectins. However, the global glycan profiles of the released N- and O-linked oligosaccharides from the glycoproteins retained by the lectins, and from those glycoproteins that did not bind, using both these complex samples, were found to be very similar. That is, although the lectins selectively and reproducibly retained some glycoproteins, other proteins with the same attached oligosaccharide structures did not bind. Some small N- and O-glycan differences were observed in the bound fractions but there was little absolute specificity toward individual oligosaccharide structures known to have high affinity to these lectins. These data indicate that lectins are useful for fractionating glycoproteins from complex mixtures, but that the overall glycoproteome is not isolated by this approach.

Mosquito cell line glycoproteins: an unsuitable model system for the Plasmodium ookinete-mosquito midgut interaction?

Background

Mosquito midgut glycoproteins may act as key recognition sites for the invading malarial ookinete. Effective transmission blocking strategies require the identification of novel target molecules. We have partially characterised the surface glycoproteins of two cell lines from two mosquito species; Anopheles stephensi and Anopheles gambiae, and investigated the binding of Plasmodium berghei ookinetes to carbohydrate ligands on the cells. Cell line extracts were run on SDS-PAGE gels and carbohydrate moieties determined by blotting against a range of biotinylated lectins. In addition, specific glycosidases were used to cleave the oligosaccharides.

Results

An. stephensi 43 and An. gambiae 55 cell line glycoproteins expressed oligosaccharides containing oligomannose and hybrid oligosaccharides, with and without α1-6 core fucosylation; N-linked oligosaccharides with terminal Galβ1-3GalNAc or GalNAcβ1-3Gal; O-linked α/βGalNAc. An. stephensi 43 cell line glycoproteins also expressed N-linked Galβ1-4R and O-linked Galβ1-3GalNAc. Although P. berghei ookinetes bound to both mosquito cell lines, binding could not be inhibited by GlcNAc, GalNAc or Galactose.

Conclusions

Anopheline cell lines displayed a limited range of oligosaccharides. Differences between the glycosylation patterns of the cell lines and mosquito midgut epithelial cells could be a factor why ookinetes did not bind in a carbohydrate inhibitable manner. Anopheline cell lines are not suitable as a potential model system for carbohydrate-mediated adhesion of Plasmodium ookinetes.