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Bowles EJ, Schiffner T, Rosario M, Needham GA, Ramaswamy M, McGouran J, Kessler B, LaBranche C, McMichael AJ, Montefiori D, Sattentau QJ, Hanke T, Stewart-Jones GBE. Comparison of neutralizing antibody responses elicited from highly diverse polyvalent heterotrimeric HIV-1 gp140 cocktail immunogens versus a monovalent counterpart in rhesus macaques. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114709. [PMID: 25490553 PMCID: PMC4260879 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Eliciting neutralizing antibodies capable of inactivating a broad spectrum of HIV-1 strains is a major goal of HIV-1 vaccine design. The challenge is that envelopes (Envs) of circulating viruses are almost certainly different from any Env used in a vaccine. A novel immunogen composed of a highly diverse set of gp140 Envs including subtypes A, B, C, D and F was developed to stimulate a more cross-neutralizing antibody response. Env heterotrimers composed of up to 54 different gp140s were produced with the aim of focusing the response to the conserved regions of Env while reducing the dominance of any individual hypervariable region. Heterotrimeric gp140 Envs of inter- and intra-subtype combinations were shown to bind CD4 and a panel of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies with similar affinity to monovalent UG37 gp140. Macaques immunized with six groups of heterotrimer mixtures showed slightly more potent neutralizing antibody responses in TZM-BL tier 1 and A3R5 tier 2 pseudovirus assays than macaques immunized with monovalent Env gp140, and exhibited a marginally greater focus on the CD4-binding site. Carbopol enhanced neutralization when used as an adjuvant instead of RIBI in combination with UG37 gp140. These data indicate that cross-subtype heterotrimeric gp140 Envs may elicit some improvement of the neutralizing antibody response in macaques compared to monovalent gp140 Env.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma J. Bowles
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (EJB); (GSJ)
| | - Torben Schiffner
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Maximillian Rosario
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Gemma A. Needham
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Meghna Ramaswamy
- Division of Retrovirology, Centre for AIDS Reagents, National Institute of Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna McGouran
- Henry Wellcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Benedikt Kessler
- Henry Wellcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Celia LaBranche
- Division of Surgical Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrew J. McMichael
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - David Montefiori
- Division of Surgical Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Quentin J. Sattentau
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tomáš Hanke
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Guillaume B. E. Stewart-Jones
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (EJB); (GSJ)
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2
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Uchtenhagen H, Schiffner T, Bowles E, Heyndrickx L, LaBranche C, Applequist SE, Jansson M, De Silva T, Back JW, Achour A, Scarlatti G, Fomsgaard A, Montefiori D, Stewart-Jones G, Spetz AL. Boosting of HIV-1 neutralizing antibody responses by a distally related retroviral envelope protein. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:5802-12. [PMID: 24829409 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1301898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Our knowledge of the binding sites for neutralizing Abs (NAb) that recognize a broad range of HIV-1 strains (bNAb) has substantially increased in recent years. However, gaps remain in our understanding of how to focus B cell responses to vulnerable conserved sites within the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env). In this article, we report an immunization strategy composed of a trivalent HIV-1 (clade B envs) DNA prime, followed by a SIVmac239 gp140 Env protein boost that aimed to focus the immune response to structurally conserved parts of the HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Envs. Heterologous NAb titers, primarily to tier 1 HIV-1 isolates, elicited during the trivalent HIV-1 env prime, were significantly increased by the SIVmac239 gp140 protein boost in rabbits. Epitope mapping of Ab-binding reactivity revealed preferential recognition of the C1, C2, V2, V3, and V5 regions. These results provide a proof of concept that a distally related retroviral SIV Env protein boost can increase pre-existing NAb responses against HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Uchtenhagen
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Center for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, S-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Torben Schiffner
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Bowles
- Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | - Leo Heyndrickx
- Virology Unit, Biomedical Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Celia LaBranche
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
| | - Steven E Applequist
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Center for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, S-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marianne Jansson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, S-22362 Lund, Sweden
| | - Thushan De Silva
- Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | | | - Adnane Achour
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Center for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, S-14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gabriella Scarlatti
- Viral Evolution and Transmission Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplant and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Anders Fomsgaard
- Department of Virology, Statens Serum Institut, DK-2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; and Institute of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - David Montefiori
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
| | - Guillaume Stewart-Jones
- Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | - Anna-Lena Spetz
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Center for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, S-14186 Stockholm, Sweden;
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Klein K, Mann JFS, Rogers P, Shattock RJ. Polymeric penetration enhancers promote humoral immune responses to mucosal vaccines. J Control Release 2014; 183:43-50. [PMID: 24657807 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Protective mucosal immune responses are thought best induced by trans-mucosal vaccination, providing greater potential to generate potent local immune responses than conventional parenteral vaccination. However, poor trans-mucosal permeability of large macromolecular antigens limits bioavailability to local inductive immune cells. This study explores the utility of polymeric penetration enhancers to promote trans-mucosal bioavailability of insulin, as a biomarker of mucosal absorption, and two vaccine candidates: recombinant HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (CN54gp140) and tetanus toxoid (TT). Responses to vaccinating antigens were assessed by measurement of serum and the vaginal humoral responses. Polyethyleneimine (PEI), Dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin (DM-β-CD) and Chitosan enhanced the bioavailability of insulin following intranasal (IN), sublingual (SL), intravaginal (I.Vag) and intrarectal (IR) administration. The same penetration enhancers also increased antigen-specific IgG and IgA antibody responses to the model vaccine antigens in serum and vaginal secretions following IN and SL application. Co-delivery of both antigens with PEI or Chitosan showed the highest increase in systemic IgG and IgA responses following IN or SL administration. However the highest IgA titres in vaginal secretions were achieved after IN immunisations with PEI and Chitosan. None of the penetration enhancers were able to increase antibody responses to gp140 after I.Vag immunisations, while in contrast PEI and Chitosan were able to induce TT-specific systemic IgG levels following I.Vag administration. In summary, we present supporting data that suggest appropriate co-formulation of vaccine antigens with excipients known to influence mucosal barrier functions can increase the bioavailability of mucosally applied antigens promoting the induction of mucosal and systemic antibody responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Klein
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Jamie F S Mann
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Paul Rogers
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Robin J Shattock
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
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4
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Schiffner T, Kong L, Duncan CJA, Back JW, Benschop JJ, Shen X, Huang PS, Stewart-Jones GB, DeStefano J, Seaman MS, Tomaras GD, Montefiori DC, Schief WR, Sattentau QJ. Immune focusing and enhanced neutralization induced by HIV-1 gp140 chemical cross-linking. J Virol 2013; 87:10163-72. [PMID: 23843636 PMCID: PMC3754013 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01161-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental vaccine antigens based upon the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) have failed to induce neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against the majority of circulating viral strains as a result of antibody evasion mechanisms, including amino acid variability and conformational instability. A potential vaccine design strategy is to stabilize Env, thereby focusing antibody responses on constitutively exposed, conserved surfaces, such as the CD4 binding site (CD4bs). Here, we show that a largely trimeric form of soluble Env can be stably cross-linked with glutaraldehyde (GLA) without global modification of antigenicity. Cross-linking largely conserved binding of all potent broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) tested, including CD4bs-specific VRC01 and HJ16, but reduced binding of several non- or weakly neutralizing antibodies and soluble CD4 (sCD4). Adjuvanted administration of cross-linked or unmodified gp140 to rabbits generated indistinguishable total gp140-specific serum IgG binding titers. However, sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 showed significantly increased CD4bs-specific antibody binding compared to animals receiving unmodified gp140. Moreover, peptide mapping of sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 revealed increased binding to gp120 C1 and V1V2 regions. Finally, neutralization titers were significantly elevated in sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 rather than unmodified gp140. We conclude that cross-linking favors antigen stability, imparts antigenic modifications that selectively refocus antibody specificity and improves induction of NAbs, and might be a useful strategy for future vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Schiffner
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - L. Kong
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - C. J. A. Duncan
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - J. W. Back
- Pepscan Therapeutics, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | | | - X. Shen
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - P. S. Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - G. B. Stewart-Jones
- The Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, The John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - J. DeStefano
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, Brooklyn, New York, USA
| | - M. S. Seaman
- Division of Viral Pathogenesis, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - G. D. Tomaras
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - D. C. Montefiori
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - W. R. Schief
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center and Department of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Q. J. Sattentau
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Wegmann F, Gartlan KH, Harandi AM, Brinckmann SA, Coccia M, Hillson WR, Kok WL, Cole S, Ho LP, Lambe T, Puthia M, Svanborg C, Scherer EM, Krashias G, Williams A, Blattman JN, Greenberg PD, Flavell RA, Moghaddam AE, Sheppard NC, Sattentau QJ. Polyethyleneimine is a potent mucosal adjuvant for viral glycoprotein antigens. Nat Biotechnol 2013; 30:883-8. [PMID: 22922673 PMCID: PMC3496939 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.2344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Protection against mucosally transmitted infections probably requires immunity at the site of pathogen entry, yet there are no mucosal adjuvant formulations licensed for human use. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) represents a family of organic polycations used as nucleic acid transfection reagents in vitro and DNA vaccine delivery vehicles in vivo. Here we show that diverse PEI forms have potent mucosal adjuvant activity for viral subunit glycoprotein antigens. A single intranasal administration of influenza hemagglutinin or herpes simplex virus type-2 (HSV-2) glycoprotein D with PEI elicited robust antibody-mediated protection from an otherwise lethal infection, and was superior to existing experimental mucosal adjuvants. PEI formed nanoscale complexes with antigen, which were taken up by antigen-presenting cells in vitro and in vivo, promoted dendritic cell trafficking to draining lymph nodes and induced non-proinflammatory cytokine responses. PEI adjuvanticity required release of host double-stranded DNA that triggered Irf3-dependent signaling. PEI therefore merits further investigation as a mucosal adjuvant for human use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Wegmann
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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6
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Buffa V, Klein K, Fischetti L, Shattock RJ. Evaluation of TLR agonists as potential mucosal adjuvants for HIV gp140 and tetanus toxoid in mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50529. [PMID: 23272062 PMCID: PMC3521731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study we investigate the impact of a range of TLR ligands and chitosan as potential adjuvants for different routes of mucosal immunisation (sublingual (SL), intranasal (IN), intravaginal (IVag) and a parenteral route (subcutaneous (SC)) in the murine model. We assess their ability to enhance antibody responses to HIV-1 CN54gp140 (gp140) and Tetanus toxoid (TT) in systemic and vaginal compartments. A number of trends were observed by route of administration. For non-adjuvanted antigen, SC>SL>IN immunisation with respect to systemic IgG responses, where endpoint titres were greater for TT than for gp140. In general, co-administration with adjuvants increased specific IgG responses where IN = SC>SL, while in the vaginal compartment IN>SL>SC for specific IgA. In contrast, for systemic and mucosal IgA responses to antigen alone SL>IN = SC. A number of adjuvants increased specific systemic IgA responses where in general IN>SL>SC immunisation, while for mucosal responses IN = SL>SC. In contrast, direct intravaginal immunisation failed to induce any detectable systemic or mucosal responses to gp140 even in the presence of adjuvant. However, significant systemic IgG responses to TT were induced by intravaginal immunisation with or without adjuvant, and detectable mucosal responses IgG and IgA were observed when TT was administered with FSL-1 or Poly I∶C. Interestingly some TLRs displayed differential activity dependent upon the route of administration. MPLA (TLR4) suppressed systemic responses to SL immunisation while enhancing responses to IN or SC immunisation. CpG B enhanced SL and IN responses, while having little or no impact on SC immunisation. These data demonstrate important route, antigen and adjuvant effects that need to be considered in the design of mucosal vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Buffa
- Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katja Klein
- Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lucia Fischetti
- Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robin J. Shattock
- Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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7
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New insights in mucosal vaccine development. Vaccine 2011; 30:142-54. [PMID: 22085556 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Revised: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal surfaces are the major entrance for infectious pathogens and therefore mucosal immune responses serve as a first line of defence. Most current immunization procedures are obtained by parenteral injection and only few vaccines are administered by mucosal route, because of its low efficiency. However, targeting of mucosal compartments to induce protective immunity at both mucosal sites and systemic level represents a great challenge. Major efforts are made to develop new mucosal candidate vaccines by selecting appropriate antigens with high immunogenicity, designing new mucosal routes of administration and selecting immune-stimulatory adjuvant molecules. The aim of mucosal vaccines is to induce broad potent protective immunity by specific neutralizing antibodies at mucosal surfaces and by induction of cellular immunity. Moreover, an efficient mucosal vaccine would make immunization procedures easier and be better suited for mass administration. This review focuses on contemporary developments of mucosal vaccination approaches using different routes of administration.
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Newcastle disease virus expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein induces strong mucosal and serum antibody responses in Guinea pigs. J Virol 2011; 85:10529-41. [PMID: 21849467 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05050-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is transmitted mainly through mucosal sites. Optimum strategies to elicit both systemic and mucosal immunity are critical for the development of vaccines against HIV-1. We therefore sought to evaluate the induction of systemic and mucosal immune responses by the use of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as a vaccine vector. We generated a recombinant NDV, designated rLaSota/gp160, expressing the gp160 envelope (Env) protein of HIV-1 from an added gene. The gp160 protein expressed by rLaSota/gp160 virus was detected on an infected cell surface and was incorporated into the NDV virion. Biochemical studies showed that gp160 present in infected cells and in the virion formed a higher-order oligomer that retained recognition by conformationally sensitive monoclonal antibodies. Expression of gp160 did not increase the virulence of recombinant NDV (rNDV) strain LaSota. Guinea pigs were administered rLaSota/gp160 via the intranasal (i.n.) or intramuscular (i.m.) route in different prime-boost combinations. Systemic and mucosal antibody responses specific to the HIV-1 envelope protein were assessed in serum and vaginal washes, respectively. Two or three immunizations via the i.n. or i.m. route induced a more potent systemic and mucosal immune response than a single immunization by either route. Priming by the i.n. route was more immunogenic than by the i.m. route, and the same was true for the boosts. Furthermore, immunization with rLaSota/gp160 by any route or combination of routes induced a Th1-type response, as reflected by the induction of stronger antigen-specific IgG2a than IgG1 antibody responses. Additionally, i.n. immunization elicited a stronger neutralizing serum antibody response to laboratory-adapted HIV-1 strain MN.3. These data illustrate that it is feasible to use NDV as a vaccine vector to elicit potent humoral and mucosal responses to the HIV-1 envelope protein.
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Aerosol delivery of virus-like particles to the genital tract induces local and systemic antibody responses. Vaccine 2011; 29:4584-92. [PMID: 21549786 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The induction of mucosal immune responses in the genital tract may be important for increasing the effectiveness of vaccines for sexually transmitted infections (STIs). In this study, we asked whether direct immunization of the mouse genital tract with a non-replicating virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccine could induce local mucosal as well as systemic antibody responses. Using VLPs derived from two bacteriophages, Qβ and PP7, and from a mammalian virus that normally infects the genital tract, human papillomavirus (HPV), we show that intravaginal aerosol administration of VLPs can induce high titer IgG and IgA antibodies in the female genital tract as well as IgG in the sera. Using a mouse model for HPV infection, we show that intravaginal immunization with either HPV type 16 VLPs or with PP7 bacteriophage VLPs displaying a peptide derived from the HPV minor capsid protein L2 could protect mice from genital infection with an HPV16 pseudovirus. These results provide a general method for inducing genital mucosal and systemic antibody responses using VLP-based immunogens.
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