Tubulin-destabilizing agent BPR0L075 induces vascular-disruption in human breast cancer mammary fat pad xenografts

Evaluating Therapeutic Efficacy of the Vascular Disrupting Agent OXi8007 Against Kidney Cancer in Mice

There has been much progress in treating kidney cancer, with several new drugs being approved over the last few years [...].

Super-Resolution Ultrasound Imaging for Monitoring the Therapeutic Efficacy of a Vascular Disrupting Agent in an Animal Model of Breast Cancer

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the use of super-resolution ultrasound (SRUS) imaging for the early detection of tumor response to treatment using a vascular-disrupting agent (VDA).

METHODS

A population of 28 female nude athymic mice (Charles River Laboratories) were implanted with human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, ATCC) in the mammary fat pad and allowed to grow. Ultrasound imaging was performed using a Vevo 3100 scanner (FUJIFILM VisualSonics Inc) equipped with the MX250 linear array transducer immediately before and after receiving bolus injections of a microbubble (MB) contrast agent (Definity, Lantheus Medical Imaging) via the tail vein. Following baseline ultrasound imaging, VDA drug (combretastatin A4 phosphate, CA4P, Sigma Aldrich) or control saline was injected via the placed catheter. After 4 or 24 hours, repeat ultrasound imaging along the same tumor cross-section occurred. Direct intratumoral pressure measurements were obtained using a calibrated sensor. All raw ultrasound data were saved for offline processing and SRUS image reconstruction using custom MATLAB software (MathWorks Inc). From a region encompassing the tumor space and the entire postprocessed ultrasound image sequence, time MB count (TMC) curves were generated in addition to traditional SRUS maps reflecting MB enumeration at each pixel location. Peak enhancement (PE) and wash-in rate (WIR) were extracted from these TMC curves. At termination, intratumoral microvessel density (MVD) was quantified using tomato lectin labeling of patent blood vessels.

RESULTS

SRUS images exhibited a clear difference between control and treated tumors. While there was no difference in any group parameters at baseline (0 hour, P > .09), both SRUS-derived PE and WIR measurements in tumors treated with VDA exhibited significant decreases by 4 (P = .03 and P = .05, respectively) and 24 hours (P = .02 and P = .01, respectively), but not in control group tumors (P > .22). Similarly, SRUS derived microvascular maps were not different at baseline (P = .81), but measures of vessel density were lower in treated tumors at both 4 and 24 hours (P < .04). An inverse relationship between intratumoral pressure and both PE and WIR parameters were found in control tumors (R2 > .09, P < .03).

CONCLUSION

SRUS imaging is a new modality for assessing tumor response to treatment using a VDA.

Synthesis, Modeling, and Biological Evaluation of Anti-Tubulin Indole-Substituted Furanones

Due to the central role of tubulin in various cellular functions, it is a validated target for anti-cancer therapeutics. However, many of the current tubulin inhibitors are derived from complex natural products and suffer from multidrug resistance, low solubility, toxicity issues, and/or the lack of multi-cancer efficacy. As such, there is a continued need for the discovery and development of new anti-tubulin drugs to enter the pipeline. Herein we report on a group of indole-substituted furanones that were prepared and tested for anti-cancer activity. Molecular docking studies showed positive correlations between favorable binding in the colchicine binding site (CBS) of tubulin and anti-proliferative activity, and the most potent compound was found to inhibit tubulin polymerization. These compounds represent a promising new structural motif in the search for small heterocyclic CBS cancer inhibitors.

Demonstrating Tumor Vascular Disrupting Activity of the Small-Molecule Dihydronaphthalene Tubulin-Binding Agent OXi6196 as a Potential Therapeutic for Cancer Treatment

The vascular disrupting activity of a promising tubulin-binding agent (OXi6196) was demonstrated in mice in MDA-MB-231 human breast tumor xenografts growing orthotopically in mammary fat pad and syngeneic RENCA kidney tumors growing orthotopically in the kidney. To enhance water solubility, OXi6196, was derivatized as its corresponding phosphate prodrug salt OXi6197, facilitating effective delivery. OXi6197 is stable in water, but rapidly releases OXi6196 in the presence of alkaline phosphatase. At low nanomolar concentrations OXi6196 caused G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and monolayers of rapidly growing HUVECs underwent concentration-dependent changes in their morphology. Loss of the microtubule structure and increased bundling of filamentous actin into stress fibers followed by cell collapse, rounding and blebbing was observed. OXi6196 (100 nM) disrupted capillary-like endothelial networks pre-established with HUVECs on Matrigel®. When prodrug OXi6197 was administered to mice bearing orthotopic MDA-MB-231-luc tumors, dynamic bioluminescence imaging (BLI) revealed dose-dependent vascular shutdown with >80% signal loss within 2 h at doses ≥30 mg/kg and >90% shutdown after 6 h for doses ≥35 mg/kg, which remained depressed by at least 70% after 24 h. Twice weekly treatment with prodrug OXi6197 (20 mg/kg) caused a significant tumor growth delay, but no overall survival benefit. Similar efficacy was observed for the first time in orthotopic RENCA-luc tumors, which showed massive hemorrhage and necrosis after 24 h. Twice weekly dosing with prodrug OXi6197 (35 mg/kg) caused tumor growth delay in most orthotopic RENCA tumors. Immunohistochemistry revealed extensive necrosis, though with surviving peripheral tissues. These results demonstrate effective vascular disruption at doses comparable to the most effective vascular-disrupting agents (VDAs) suggesting opportunities for further development.

Imaging-Guided Evaluation of the Novel Small-Molecule Benzosuberene Tubulin-Binding Agent KGP265 as a Potential Therapeutic Agent for Cancer Treatment

Simple Summary

Vascular-disrupting agents promise significant therapeutic efficacy against solid tumors by selectively damaging tumor-associated vasculature. Dynamic BLI and oxygen-enhanced multispectral optoacoustic tomography (OE-MSOT) were used to compare vascular shutdown following administration of KGP265. BLI signal and vascular oxygenation response (ΔsO₂) to a gas breathing challenge were both significantly reduced within 2 h indicating vascular disruption, which continued over 24 h. Twice-weekly doses of KGP265 caused a significant growth delay in MDA-MB-231 human breast tumor xenografts and 4T1 syngeneic breast tumors growing orthotopically in mice.

Abstract

The selective disruption of tumor-associated vasculature represents an attractive therapeutic approach. We have undertaken the first in vivo evaluation of KGP265, a water-soluble prodrug of a benzosuberene-based tubulin-binding agent, and found promising vascular-disrupting activity in three distinct tumor types. Dose escalation in orthotopic MDA-MB-231-luc breast tumor xenografts in mice indicated that higher doses produced more effective vascular shutdown, as revealed by dynamic bioluminescence imaging (BLI). In syngeneic orthotopic 4T1-luc breast and RENCA-luc kidney tumors, dynamic BLI and oxygen enhanced multispectral optoacoustic tomography (OE-MSOT) were used to compare vascular shutdown following the administration of KGP265 (7.5 mg/kg). The BLI signal and vascular oxygenation response (ΔsO₂) to a gas breathing challenge were both significantly reduced within 2 h, indicating vascular disruption, which continued over 24 h. A correlative histology confirmed increased necrosis and hemorrhage. Twice-weekly doses of KGP265 caused significant growth delay in both MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 breast tumors, with no obvious systemic toxicity. A combination with carboplatin produced significantly greater tumor growth delay than carboplatin alone, though significant carboplatin-associated toxicity was observed (whole-body weight loss). KGP265 was found to be effective at low concentrations, generating long-term vascular shutdown and tumor growth delay, thus providing strong rationale for further development, particularly in combination therapies.

Non-Invasive Evaluation of Acute Effects of Tubulin Binding Agents: A Review of Imaging Vascular Disruption in Tumors

Tumor vasculature proliferates rapidly, generally lacks pericyte coverage, and is uniquely fragile making it an attractive therapeutic target. A subset of small-molecule tubulin binding agents cause disaggregation of the endothelial cytoskeleton leading to enhanced vascular permeability generating increased interstitial pressure. The resulting vascular collapse and ischemia cause downstream hypoxia, ultimately leading to cell death and necrosis. Thus, local damage generates massive amplification and tumor destruction. The tumor vasculature is readily accessed and potentially a common target irrespective of disease site in the body. Development of a therapeutic approach and particularly next generation agents benefits from effective non-invasive assays. Imaging technologies offer varying degrees of sophistication and ease of implementation. This review considers technological strengths and weaknesses with examples from our own laboratory. Methods reveal vascular extent and patency, as well as insights into tissue viability, proliferation and necrosis. Spatiotemporal resolution ranges from cellular microscopy to single slice tomography and full three-dimensional views of whole tumors and measurements can be sufficiently rapid to reveal acute changes or long-term outcomes. Since imaging is non-invasive, each tumor may serve as its own control making investigations particularly efficient and rigorous. The concept of tumor vascular disruption was proposed over 30 years ago and it remains an active area of research.

Phase I Dose-Escalation Study of SCB01A, a Microtubule Inhibitor with Vascular Disrupting Activity, in Patients with Advanced Solid Tumors

LESSONS LEARNED

SCB01A is a novel microtubule inhibitor with vascular disrupting activity. This first-in-human study demonstrated SCB01A safety, pharmacokinetics, and preliminary antitumor activity. SCB01A is safe and well tolerated in patients with advanced solid malignancies with manageable neurotoxicity.

BACKGROUND

SCB01A, a novel microtubule inhibitor, has vascular disrupting activity.

METHODS

In this phase I dose-escalation and extension study, patients with advanced solid tumors were administered intravenous SCB01A infusions for 3 hours once every 21 days. Rapid titration and a 3 + 3 design escalated the dose from 2 mg/m² to the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) based on dose-limiting toxicity (DLT). SCB01A-induced cellular neurotoxicity was evaluated in dorsal root ganglion cells. The primary endpoint was MTD. Safety, pharmacokinetics (PK), and tumor response were secondary endpoints.

RESULTS

Treatment-related adverse events included anemia, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, fever, and peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy. DLTs included grade 4 elevated creatine phosphokinase (CPK) in the 4 mg/m² cohort; grade 3 gastric hemorrhage in the 6.5 mg/m² cohort; grade 2 thromboembolic event in the 24 mg/m² cohort; and grade 3 peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy, grade 3 elevated aspartate aminotransferase, and grade 3 hypertension in the 32 mg/m² cohort. The MTD was 24 mg/m² , and average half-life was ~2.5 hours. The area under the curve-dose response relationship was linear. Nineteen subjects were stable after two cycles. The longest treatment lasted 24 cycles. SCB01A-induced neurotoxicity was reversible in vitro.

CONCLUSION

The MTD of SCB01A was 24 mg/m² every 21 days; it is safe and tolerable in patients with solid tumors.

Bioreductively Activatable Prodrug Conjugates of Combretastatin A-1 and Combretastatin A-4 as Anticancer Agents Targeted toward Tumor-Associated Hypoxia

The natural products combretastatin A-1 (CA1) and combretastatin A-4 (CA4) function as potent inhibitors of tubulin polymerization and as selective vascular disrupting agents (VDAs) in tumors. Bioreductively activatable prodrug conjugates (BAPCs) can enhance selectivity by serving as substrates for reductase enzymes specifically in hypoxic regions of tumors. A series of CA1-BAPCs incorporating nor-methyl, mono-methyl, and gem-dimethyl nitrothiophene triggers were synthesized together with corresponding CA4-BAPCs, previously reported by Davis (Mol. Cancer Ther. 2006, 5 (11), 2886), for comparison. The CA4-gem-dimethylnitrothiophene BAPC 45 proved exemplary in comparison to its nor-methyl 43 and mono-methyl 44 congeners. It was stable in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4, 24 h), was cleaved (25%, 90 min) by NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR), was inactive (desirable prodrug attribute) as an inhibitor of tubulin polymerization (IC50 > 20 μM), and demonstrated hypoxia-selective activation in the A549 cell line [hypoxia cytotoxicity ratio (HCR) = 41.5]. The related CA1-gem-dimethylnitrothiophene BAPC 41 was also promising (HCR = 12.5) with complete cleavage (90 min) upon treatment with POR. In a preliminary in vivo dynamic bioluminescence imaging study, BAPC 45 (180 mg/kg, ip) induced a decrease (within 4 h) in light emission in a 4T1 syngeneic mouse breast tumor model, implying activation and vascular disruption.

Longitudinal Photoacoustic Imaging of the Pharmacodynamic Effect of Vascular Targeted Therapy on Tumors

PURPOSE

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a novel noninvasive and nonionizing imaging technique that allows longitudinal imaging of tumor vasculature in vivo and monitoring of response to therapy, especially for vascular targeted chemotherapy agents. In this study, we used a novel high-resolution all-optical PAI scanner to observe the pharmacodynamic response to the vascular-disrupting agent OXi4503.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Two models of colorectal carcinoma (SW1222 and LS174T) that possess differing pathophysiologic vascularization were established as subcutaneous tumors in mice. Monitoring of response was performed over a 16-day "regrowth" period following treatment at 40 mg/kg, and at day 2 for a "dose response" study at 40 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg, and sham dose.

RESULTS

Qualitative and quantitative changes in PA signal are observed, with an initial decrease followed by a plateau and subsequent return of signal indicating regrowth. Both tumor types exhibited a decrease in signal; however, the more vascularized SW1222 tumors show greater response to treatment. Decreasing the dose of OXi4503 led to a decrease in PA signal intensity of 60%, 52%, and 20% in SW1222 tumors and 30%, 26%, and 4% for LS174T tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

We have shown for the first time that PAI can observe the pharmacodynamic response of tumor vasculature to drug treatment both longitudinally and at different dose levels. Assessment of differing response to treatment based on vascular pathophysiologic differences among patients has the potential to provide personalized drug therapy; we have demonstrated that PAI, which is clinically translatable, could be a powerful tool for this purpose.

Power Doppler ultrasound and contrast-enhanced ultrasound demonstrate non-invasive tumour vascular response to anti-vascular therapy in canine cancer patients

Combretastatin A4-phosphate (CA4P) is an anti-vascular agent which selectively shuts down blood supply in tumours, resulting in extensive tumour necrosis. The aim of this study was to assess in vivo, non-invasive ultrasound techniques for the early evaluation of tumour perfusion following CA4P treatment of spontaneous tumours. Eight dogs that bore spontaneous tumours were enrolled and were subsequently treated with a single dose of intravenous CA4P. Perfusion of tumours was evaluated by power Doppler ultrasound (PDUS) pre-treatment (0 h), during the injection (10 min, 20 min, 30 min) and after CA4P infusion (24 and 72 h). Vascularity index (VI) of the tumour tissue was quantitatively analysed and accuracy was verified by correlation analysis with the results of immunohistochemical evaluation of microvessel density (MVD). Central and peripheral perfusion was evaluated by contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) pre-treatment and at 72 h post-treatment. Post-treatment, PDUS demonstrated a significant decrease in VI within 10 min of CA4P infusion. CEUS parameters demonstrated a significant decrease in blood velocity and volume in the central aspect of the tumour. Histology revealed a 4.4-fold reduction (p < 0.001, 95% CI [2.2,9.4]) in MVD and a 4.1-fold increase (p = 0.003, 95% CI [1.4,11.8]) in necrotic tumour tissue. A strong correlation between PDUS results and immunohistochemical results was found (Pearson R² = 0.957, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the findings of PDUS were supported by the objective results of the CEUS analyses. These data suggest a role for ultrasound in real-time, non-invasive monitoring of tumour vascular response as an early indicator of CA4P treatment efficacy.

Structure Guided Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Novel Benzosuberene Analogues as Inhibitors of Tubulin Polymerization

A promising design paradigm for small-molecule inhibitors of tubulin polymerization that bind to the colchicine site draws structural inspiration from the natural products colchicine and combretastatin A-4 (CA4). Our previous studies with benzocycloalkenyl and heteroaromatic ring systems yielded promising inhibitors with dihydronaphthalene and benzosuberene analogues featuring phenolic (KGP03 and KGP18) and aniline (KGP05 and KGP156) congeners emerging as lead agents. These molecules demonstrated dual mechanism of action, functioning both as potent vascular disrupting agents (VDAs) and as highly cytotoxic anticancer agents. A further series of analogues was designed to extend functional group diversity and investigate regioisomeric tolerance. Ten new molecules were effective inhibitors of tubulin polymerization (IC₅₀ < 5 μM) with seven of these exhibiting highly potent activity comparable to CA4, KGP18, and KGP03. For one of the most effective agents, dose-dependent vascular shutdown was demonstrated using dynamic bioluminescence imaging in a human prostate tumor xenograft growing in a rat.

Synthesis of dihydronaphthalene analogues inspired by combretastatin A-4 and their biological evaluation as anticancer agents

The natural products colchicine and combretastatin A-4 (CA4) have provided inspiration for the discovery and development of a wide array of derivatives and analogues that inhibit tubulin polymerization through a binding interaction at the colchicine site on β-tubulin. A water-soluble phosphate prodrug salt of CA4 (referred to as CA4P) has demonstrated the ability to selectively damage tumor-associated vasculature and ushered in a new class of developmental anticancer agents known as vascular disrupting agents (VDAs). Through a long-term program of structure activity relationship (SAR) driven inquiry, we discovered that the dihydronaphthalene molecular scaffold provided access to small-molecule inhibitors of tubulin polymerization. In particular, a dihydronaphthalene analogue bearing a pendant trimethoxy aryl ring (referred to as KGP03) and a similar aroyl ring (referred to as KGP413) were potent inhibitors of tubulin polymerization (IC50 = 1.0 and 1.2 μM, respectively) and displayed low nM cytotoxicity against human cancer cell lines. In order to enhance water-solubility for in vivo evaluation, the corresponding phosphate prodrug salts (KGP04 and KGP152, respectively) were synthesized. In a preliminary in vivo study in a SCID-BALB/c mouse model bearing the human breast tumor MDA-MB-231-luc, a 99% reduction in signal was observed with bioluminescence imaging (BLI) 4 h after IP administration of KGP152 (200 mg kg-1) indicating reduced tumor blood flow. In a separate study, disruption of tumor-associated blood flow in a Fischer rat bearing an A549-luc human lung tumor was observed by color Doppler ultrasound following administration of KGP04 (15 mg kg-1).

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Benzocyclooctene-based and Indene-based Anticancer Agents that Function as Inhibitors of Tubulin Polymerization

The natural products colchicine and combretastatin A-4 (CA4) have been inspirational for the design and synthesis of structurally related analogues and spin-off compounds as inhibitors of tubulin polymerization. The discovery that a water-soluble phosphate prodrug salt of CA4 (referred to as CA4P) is capable of imparting profound and selective damage to tumor-associated blood vessels paved the way for the development of a new therapeutic approach for cancer treatment utilizing small-molecule inhibitors of tubulin polymerization that also act as vascular disrupting agents (VDAs). Combination of salient structural features associated with colchicine and CA4 led to the design and synthesis of a variety of fused aryl-cycloalkyl and aryl-heterocyclic compounds that function as inhibitors of tubulin polymerization. Prominent among these compounds is a benzosuberene analogue (referred to as KGP18), which demonstrates sub-nM cytotoxicity against human cancer cell lines and functions (when administered as a water-soluble prodrug salt) as a VDA in mouse models. Structure activity relationship considerations led to the evaluation of benzocyclooctyl [6,8 fused] and indene [6,5 fused] ring systems. Four benzocyclooctene and four indene analogues were prepared and evaluated biologically. Three of the benzocyclooctene analogues were active as inhibitors of tubulin polymerization (IC50 < 5 μM), and benzocyclooctene phenol 23 was comparable to KGP18 in terms of potency. The analogous indene-based compound 31 also functioned as an inhibitor of tubulin polymerization (IC50 = 11 μM) with reduced potency. The most potent inhibitor of tubulin polymerization from this group was benzocyclooctene analogue 23, and it was converted to its water-soluble prodrug salt 24 to assess its potential as a VDA. Preliminary in vivo studies, which utilized the MCF7-luc-GFP-mCherry breast tumor in a SCID mouse model, demonstrated that treatment with 24 (120 mg/kg) resulted in significant vascular shutdown, as evidenced by bioluminescence imaging at 4 h post administration, and that the effect continued at both 24 and 48 h. Contemporaneous studies with CA4P, a clinically relevant VDA, were carried out as a positive control.

Early investigational tubulin inhibitors as novel cancer therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

Microtubules represent one of the most logical and strategic molecular targets amongst the current targets for chemotherapy, alongside DNA. In the past decade, tubulin inhibitors as cancer therapeutics have been an area of focus due to the improved understanding and biological relevance of microtubules in cellular functions. Fueled by the objective of developing novel chemotherapeutics and with the aim of establishing the benefits of tubulin inhibition, several clinical trials have been conducted with others ongoing.

AREA COVERED

At present, the antitubulin development pipeline contains an armful of agents under clinical investigation. This review focuses on novel tubulin inhibitors as cancer therapeutics. The article covers the agents which have completed the phase II studies along with the agents demonstrating promising results in phase I studies.

EXPERT OPINION

Countless clinical trials evaluating the efficacy, safety and pharmacokinetics of novel tubulin inhibitors highlights the scientific efforts being paid to establish their candidature as cancer therapeutics. Colchicine binding site inhibitors as vascular disrupting agents (VDAs) and new taxanes appear to be the most likely agents for future clinical interest. Numerous agents have demonstrated clinical benefits in terms of efficacy and survival in phase I and II studies. However conclusive benefits can only be ascertained on the basis of phase III studies.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of water-soluble amino acid prodrug conjugates derived from combretastatin, dihydronaphthalene, and benzosuberene-based parent vascular disrupting agents

Targeting tumor vasculature represents an intriguing therapeutic strategy in the treatment of cancer. In an effort to discover new vascular disrupting agents with improved water solubility and potentially greater bioavailability, various amino acid prodrug conjugates (AAPCs) of potent amino combretastatin, amino dihydronaphthalene, and amino benzosuberene analogs were synthesized along with their corresponding water-soluble hydrochloride salts. These compounds were evaluated for their ability to inhibit tubulin polymerization and for their cytotoxicity against selected human cancer cell lines. The amino-based parent anticancer agents 7, 8, 32 (also referred to as KGP05) and 33 (also referred to as KGP156) demonstrated potent cytotoxicity (GI50=0.11-40nM) across all evaluated cell lines, and they were strong inhibitors of tubulin polymerization (IC50=0.62-1.5μM). The various prodrug conjugates and their corresponding salts were investigated for cleavage by the enzyme leucine aminopeptidase (LAP). Four of the glycine water-soluble AAPCs (16, 18, 44 and 45) showed quantitative cleavage by LAP, resulting in the release of the highly cytotoxic parent drug, whereas partial cleavage (<10-90%) was observed for other prodrugs (15, 17, 24, 38 and 39). Eight of the nineteen AAPCs (13-16, 42-45) showed significant cytotoxicity against selected human cancer cell lines. The previously reported CA1-diamine analog and its corresponding hydrochloride salt (8 and 10, respectively) caused extensive disruption (at a concentration of 1.0μM) of human umbilical vein endothelial cells growing in a two-dimensional tubular network on matrigel. In addition, compound 10 exhibited pronounced reduction in bioluminescence (greater than 95% compared to saline control) in a tumor bearing (MDA-MB-231-luc) SCID mouse model 2h post treatment (80mg/kg), with similar results observed upon treatment (15mg/kg) with the glycine amino-dihydronaphthalene AAPC (compound 44). Collectively, these results support the further pre-clinical development of the most active members of this structurally diverse collection of water-soluble prodrugs as promising anticancer agents functioning through a mechanism involving vascular disruption.

Structural interrogation of benzosuberene-based inhibitors of tubulin polymerization

The discovery of 3-methoxy-9-(30,40,50-trimethoxyphenyl)-6,7-dihydro-5H-benzo[7]annulen-4-ol (a benzosuberene-based analogue referred to as KGP18) was originally inspired by the natural products colchicine and combretastatin A-4 (CA4). The relative structural simplicity and ease of synthesis of KGP18, coupled with its potent biological activity as an inhibitor of tubulin polymerization and its cytotoxicity (in vitro) against human cancer cell lines, has resulted in studies focused on new analogue design and synthesis. Our goal was to probe the relationship of structure to function in this class of anticancer agents. A series of twenty-two new benzosuberene-based analogues of KGP18 was designed and synthesized. These compounds vary in their methoxylation pattern and separately incorporate trifluoromethyl groups around the pendant aryl ring for the evaluation of the effect of functional group modifications on the fused six-membered aromatic ring. In addition, the 8,9-saturated congener of KGP18 has been synthesized to assess the necessity of unsaturation at the carbon atom bearing the pendant aryl ring. Six of the molecules from this benzosuberene-series of compounds were active (IC50 < 5 lM) as inhibitors of tubulin polymerization while four analogues were comparable (IC50 approximately 1 lM) in their tubulin inhibitory activity to CA4 and KGP18. The potency of a bis-trifluoromethyl analogue 74 and the unsaturated KGP18 derivative 73 as inhibitors of tubulin assembly along with their moderate cytotoxicity suggested the potential utility of these compounds as vascular disrupting agents (VDAs) to selectively target microvessels feeding tumors. Accordingly, water-soluble and DMSO-soluble phosphate prodrug salts of each were synthesized for preliminary in vivo studies to assess their potential efficacy as VDAs.

The vascular disrupting activity of OXi8006 in endothelial cells and its phosphate prodrug OXi8007 in breast tumor xenografts

This study describes the vascular disrupting ability and the mechanism of action of the indole-based tubulin-binding compound, OXi8006, and its water-soluble phosphate prodrug OXi8007. Treatment of rapidly proliferating human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), used as a model for the tumor vasculature, with OXi8006 or OXi8007, caused potent microtubule disruption followed by extensive reorganization of the cytoskeletal network. The mechanism of action involved an increase in focal adhesion formation associated with an increase in phosphorylation of both non-muscle myosin light chain and focal adhesion kinase. These effects were dramatically diminished by an inhibitor of RhoA kinase, a downstream effector of RhoA. Cell cycle blockade at G2/M and cytotoxicity toward rapidly proliferating HUVECs were also observed. Capillary-like networks of HUVECs were disrupted by the action of both OXi8006 and OXi8007. The prodrug OXi8007 exhibited potent and rapid dose-dependent antivascular activity assessed by dynamic bioluminescence imaging (BLI) in an MDA-MB-231-luc breast cancer xenograft mouse model. By 6 hours post treatment, over 93% of the BLI signal was abolished with only a slight recovery at 24 hours. These findings were confirmed by histology. The results from this study demonstrate that OXi8007 is a potent vascular disrupting agent acting through an anti-microtubule mechanism involving RhoA.

Evaluation of tumor ischemia in response to an indole-based vascular disrupting agent using BLI and (19)F MRI

Vascular disrupting agents (VDAs) have been proposed as an effective broad spectrum approach to cancer therapy, by inducing ischemia leading to hypoxia and cell death. A novel VDA (OXi8007) was recently reported to show rapid acute selective shutdown of tumor vasculature based on color-Doppler ultrasound. We have now expanded investigations to noninvasively assess perfusion and hypoxiation of orthotopic human MDA-MB-231/luc breast tumor xenografts following the administration of OXi8007 based on dynamic bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). BLI showed significantly lower signal four hours after the administration of OXi8007, which was very similar to the response to combretastatin A-4P (CA4P), but the effect lasted considerably longer, with the BLI signal remaining depressed at 72 hrs. Meanwhile, control tumors exhibited minimal change. Oximetry used (19)F MRI of the reporter molecule hexafluorobenzene and FREDOM (Fluorocarbon Relaxometry using Echo Planar Imaging for Dynamic Oxygen Mapping) to assess pO2 distributions during air and oxygen breathing. pO2 decreased significantly upon the administration of OXi8007 during oxygen breathing (from 122 ± 64 to 34 ± 20 Torr), with further decrease upon switching the gas to air (pO2 = 17 ± 9 Torr). pO2 maps indicated intra-tumor heterogeneity in response to OXi8007, though ultimately all tumor regions became hypoxic. Both BLI and FREDOM showed the efficacy of OXi8007. The pO2 changes measured by FREDOM may be crucial for future study of combined therapy.

Dynamic bioluminescence and fluorescence imaging of the effects of the antivascular agent Combretastatin-A4P (CA4P) on brain tumor xenografts

Combretastatin A-4 (CA4) is a natural product isolated from Combretum caffrum that inhibits tubulin polymerization by binding to the colchicine-binding site. A corresponding water soluble pro-drug (referred to as CA4P), has undergone extensive clinical trials and has been evaluated in pre-clinical studies using multiple modalities. We previously reported a novel assay based on dynamic bioluminescent imaging to assess tumor vascular disruption and now present its application to assessing multiple tumors simultaneously. The current study evaluated the vascular-disrupting activity of CA4P on subcutaneous 9L rat brain tumor xenografts in mice using dynamic bioluminescence imaging. A single dose of CA4P (120 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) induced rapid, temporary tumor vascular shutdown revealed by a rapid and reproducible decrease of light emission from luciferase-expressing 9L tumors following administration of luciferin as a substrate. A time-dependent reduction of tumor perfusion after CA4P treatment was confirmed by immunohistological assessment of the perfusion marker Hoechst 33342 and the tumor vasculature marker CD31. The vasculature showed distinct recovery within 24 h post therapy. Multiple tumors behaved similarly, although a size dependent vascular inhibition was observed. In conclusion, CA4P caused rapid, temporary tumor vascular shutdown and led to reduction of tumor perfusion in rat brain tumor xenografts and the multiple tumor approach should lead to more efficient studies requiring fewer animals and greater consistency.

Design and synthesis of aminostilbene-arylpropenones as tubulin polymerization inhibitors

A series of aminostilbene-arylpropenones were designed and synthesized by Michael addition and were investigated for their cytotoxic activity against various human cancer cell lines. Some of the investigated compounds exhibited significant antiproliferative activity against a panel of 60 human cancer cell lines of the US National Cancer Institute, with 50 % growth inhibition (GI50) values in the range from < 0.01 to 19.9 μM. One of the compounds showed a broad spectrum of antiproliferative efficacy on most of the cell lines, with a GI50 value of < 0.01 μM. All of the synthesized compounds displayed cytotoxicity against A549 (non-small-cell lung cancer), HeLa (cervical carcinoma), MCF-7 (breast cancer), and HCT116 (colon carcinoma) with 50 % inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging from 0.011 to 8.56 μM. A cell cycle assay revealed that these compounds arrested the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. Two compounds exhibited strong inhibitory effects on tubulin assembly with IC50 values of 0.71 and 0.79 μM. Moreover, dot-blot analysis of cyclin B1 demonstrated that some of the congeners strongly induced cyclin B1 protein levels. Molecular docking studies indicated that these compounds occupy the colchicine binding site of tubulin.

Tubulin inhibitors: a patent review

INTRODUCTION

Microtubules play an important role in several cellular processes, particularly in the formation of the mitotic spindle during the process of mitosis. These highly dynamic mitotic-spindle microtubules have become a successful target of cancer therapy. Microtubule-targeting agents, such as vinca alkaloids and taxanes, were used in clinic over 50 years. In past decades, development of new antimicrotubule agents that possess different structure and binding sites of tubulin has shown potent activity against the proliferation of various cancer cells, as well as in multidrug-resistant cancers. Interestingly, many of these agents represent an attractive ability that targeting the tumor blood vessels results in tumor vascular disruption. Therefore, exploring new agents and strategies may provide more effective therapeutic options in the related treatment of cancer.

AREAS COVERED

In past few years, there are many chemical compounds that successfully interferes the microtubules and display antitumor effect. In these, published compounds supply the fresh minds in modification of present drugs and new insights into the development of tubulin inhibitors.

EXPERT OPINION

This article arranges the microtubule-targeting agents that have published in patent in recent years. It may help in the investigation of new tubulin binding site and development of novel drug candidate in the future.

Synthesis of a 2-aryl-3-aroyl indole salt (OXi8007) resembling combretastatin A-4 with application as a vascular disrupting agent

The natural products colchicine and combretastatin A-4 are potent inhibitors of tubulin assembly, and they have inspired the design and synthesis of a large number of small-molecule, potential anticancer agents. The indole-based molecular scaffold is prominent among these SAR modifications, leading to a rapidly increasing number of agents. The water-soluble phosphate prodrug 33 (OXi8007) of 2-aryl-3-aroylindole-based phenol 8 (OXi8006) was prepared by chemical synthesis and found to be strongly cytotoxic against selected human cancer cell lines (GI₅₀ = 36 nM against DU-145 cells, for example). The free phenol, 8 (OXi8006), was a strong inhibitor (IC₅₀ = 1.1 μM) of tubulin assembly. The corresponding phosphate prodrug 33 (OXi8007) also demonstrated pronounced interference with tumor vasculature in a preliminary in vivo study utilizing a SCID mouse model bearing an orthotopic PC-3 (prostate) tumor as imaged by color Doppler ultrasound. The combination of these results provides evidence that the indole-based phosphate prodrug 33 (OXi8007) functions as a vascular disrupting agent that may prove useful for the treatment of cancer.

An antimitotic and antivascular agent BPR0L075 overcomes multidrug resistance and induces mitotic catastrophe in paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells

Paclitaxel plays a major role in the treatment of ovarian cancer; however, resistance to paclitaxel is frequently observed. Thus, new therapy that can overcome paclitaxel resistance will be of significant clinical importance. We evaluated antiproliferative effects of an antimitotic and antivascular agent BPR0L075 in paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells. BPR0L075 displays potent and broad-spectrum cytotoxicity at low nanomolar concentrations (IC₅₀ = 2–7 nM) against both parental ovarian cancer cells (OVCAR-3, SKOV-3, and A2780-1A9) and paclitaxel-resistant sublines (OVCAR-3-TR, SKOV-3-TR, 1A9-PTX10), regardless of the expression levels of the multidrug resistance transporter P-gp and class III β-tubulin or mutation of β-tubulin. BPR0L075 blocks cell cycle at the G2/M phase in paclitaxel-resistant cells while equal concentration of paclitaxel treatment was ineffective. BPR0L075 induces cell death by a dual mechanism in parental and paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells. In the parental cells (OVCAR-3 and SKOV-3), BPR0L075 induced apoptosis, evidenced by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage and DNA ladder formation. BPR0L075 induced cell death in paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells (OVCAR-3-TR and SKOV-3-TR) is primarily due to mitotic catastrophe, evidenced by formation of giant, multinucleated cells and absence of PARP cleavage. Immunoblotting analysis shows that BPR0L075 treatment induced up-regulation of cyclin B1, BubR1, MPM-2, and survivin protein levels and Bcl-XL phosphorylation in parental cells; however, in resistant cells, the endogenous expressions of BubR1 and survivin were depleted, BPR0L075 treatment failed to induce MPM-2 expression and phosphorylation of Bcl-XL. BPR0L075 induced cell death in both parental and paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells proceed through caspase-3 independent mechanisms. In conclusion, BPR0L075 displays potent cytotoxic effects in ovarian cancer cells with a potential to overcome paclitaxel resistance by bypassing efflux transporters and inducing mitotic catastrophe. BPR0L075 represents a novel microtubule therapeutic to overcome multidrug resistance and trigger alternative cell death by mitotic catastrophe in ovarian cancer cells that are apoptosis-resistant.

Comparison of optical and power Doppler ultrasound imaging for non-invasive evaluation of arsenic trioxide as a vascular disrupting agent in tumors

Small animal imaging provides diverse methods for evaluating tumor growth and acute response to therapy. This study compared the utility of non-invasive optical and ultrasound imaging to monitor growth of three diverse human tumor xenografts (brain U87-luc-mCherry, mammary MCF7-luc-mCherry, and prostate PC3-luc) growing in nude mice. Bioluminescence imaging (BLI), fluorescence imaging (FLI), and Power Doppler ultrasound (PD US) were then applied to examine acute vascular disruption following administration of arsenic trioxide (ATO).

During initial tumor growth, strong correlations were found between manual caliper measured tumor volume and FLI intensity, BLI intensity following luciferin injection, and traditional B-mode US. Administration of ATO to established U87 tumors caused significant vascular shutdown within 2 hrs at all doses in the range 5 to 10 mg/kg in a dose dependant manner, as revealed by depressed bioluminescent light emission. At lower doses substantial recovery was seen within 4 hrs. At 8 mg/kg there was >85% reduction in tumor vascular perfusion, which remained depressed after 6 hrs, but showed some recovery after 24 hrs. Similar response was observed in MCF7 and PC3 tumors. Dynamic BLI and PD US each showed similar duration and percent reductions in tumor blood flow, but FLI showed no significant changes during the first 24 hrs.

The results provide further evidence for comparable utility of optical and ultrasound imaging for monitoring tumor growth, More specifically, they confirm the utility of BLI and ultrasound imaging as facile assays of the vascular disruption in solid tumors based on ATO as a model agent.