Cloning, expression and characterization of a gene from earthworm Eisenia fetida encoding a blood-clot dissolving protein

Qilong capsule alleviates ponatinib-induced ischemic stroke in a zebrafish model by regulating coagulation, inflammation and apoptosis

ETHOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Qilong capsule (QLC) is a compound traditional Chinese medicine commonly used to treat ischemic stroke (IS). QLC is made of eight kinds of medicinal materials. It has two kinds of monarch medicine and six kinds of minister medicine. However, the pharmacodynamic mechanism of QLC is still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this paper was to evaluate the pharmacology mechanism of QLC against ischemic stroke through coagulation, inflammation and apoptosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used an existing zebrafish model to explore the protective mechanism of QLC on IS. We treated normally-developing zebrafish larvae with QLC and ponatinib 2 days post fertilization (dpf), and used the area of cerebral vascular thrombosis, red blood cell staining intensity, and brain cell apoptosis to quantitate QLC efficacy against IS. Evaluation of brain inflammation in zebrafish by observing macrophage aggregation and migration. In addition, we also explored the effect of QLC on zebrafish angiogenesis. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to detect changes in the expression of genes involved in coagulation, inflammation, vascular endothelium, and apoptosis.

RESULTS

We found that QLC reduced the area affected by ponatinib-induced cerebral vascular embolism, erythrocyte staining intensity, and the number of apoptotic brain cells. For inflammation, QLC can improve the aggregation and migration of macrophages. QLC can significantly promote the formation of blood vessels in zebrafish. qPCR showed that QLC inhibited the expression of genes related to coagulation, inflammation, and apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Qilong capsule had a significant protective efficacy in ponatinib-induced IS.

Qilong Capsule Alleviated MPTP-Induced Neuronal Defects by Inhibiting Apoptosis, Regulating Autophagy in Zebrafish Embryo Model

Qilong capsule (QLC) originates from the famous "Buyang Huanwu decoction" prescription. It is representative of drugs used in China during recovery from stroke, but its neuroprotective mechanism of action remains obscure. HPLC was used to evaluate the similarity of 10 batches of QLC samples. Then we used a zebrafish model to study the neuroprotective effect of QLC. At 24 hpf, embryos were treated with QLC and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), and zebrafish were observed the neuronal length and the number of apoptotic cells in the brain at 72 hpf. At 120 hpf, we conduct zebrafish behavioural tests. We then also used qPCR to detect the expression of genes related to autophagy and apoptosis. The results showed that QLC significantly reduced the damage of dopaminergic neurons, the number of apoptotic cells in the brain, and alleviated motor disturbances induced by MPTP. We found that the mechanism of QLC activity involved decreased neuron cell death by inhibiting mitochondrial apoptosis and autophagy, promoting autophagy, degradation of alpha-synuclein, and neuron cell growth, and rescuing the function of neurons damaged by MPTP. The results indicated that QLC protected against MPTP-induced neuron injury and provided pharmacological evidence for clinical use of QLC.

Targeted thrombolysis by magnetoacoustic particles in photothrombotic stroke model

BACKGROUND

Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) has a short half-life, and additional hemorrhagic transformation (HT) can occur when treatment is delayed. Here, we report the design and thrombolytic performance of 3 [Formula: see text]m discoidal polymeric particles loaded with rtPA and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), referred to as rmDPPs, to address the HT issues of rtPA.

METHODS

The rmDPPs consisted of a biodegradable polymeric matrix, rtPA, and SPIONs and were synthesized via a top-down fabrication.

RESULTS

The rmDPPs could be concentrated at the target site with magnetic attraction, and then the rtPA could be released under acoustic stimulus. Therefore, we named that the particles had magnetoacoustic properties. For the in vitro blood clot lysis, the rmDPPs with magnetoacoustic stimuli could not enhance the lytic potential compared to the rmDPPs without stimulation. Furthermore, although the reduction of the infarcts in vivo was observed along with the magnetoacoustic stimuli in the rmDPPs, more enhancement was not achieved in comparison with the rtPA. A notable advantage of rmDPPs was shown in delayed administration of rmDPPs at poststroke. The late treatment of rmDPPs with magnetoacoustic stimuli could reduce the infarcts and lead to no additional HT issues, while rtPA alone could not show any favorable prognosis.

CONCLUSION

The rmDPPs may be advantageous in delayed treatment of thrombotic patients.

Cavitation-assisted sonothrombolysis by asymmetrical nanostars for accelerated thrombolysis

Sonothrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) and microbubbles has been widely studied to enhance thrombolytic potential. Here, we report different sonothrombolysis strategy in nanoparticles using microbubbles cavitation. We found that different particles in shape exhibited different reactivity toward the cavitation, leading to a distinct sonothrombolytic potential. Two different gold nanoparticles in shape were functionalized with the rtPA: rtPA-functionalized gold nanospheres (NPt) and gold nanostars (NSt). NPt could not accelerate the thrombolytic potential with a sole acoustic stimulus. Importantly, NSt enhanced the potential with acoustic stimulus and microbubble-mediated cavitation, while NPt were not reactive to cavitation. Coadministration of NSt and microbubbles resulted in a dramatic reduction of the infarcts in a photothrombotic model and recovery in the cerebral blood flow. Given the synergistic effect and in vivo feasibility of this strategy, cavitation-assisted sonothrombolysis by asymmetrical NSt might be useful for treating acute ischemic stroke.

Biochemical, transcriptomic, gut microbiome responses and defense mechanisms of the earthworm Eisenia fetida to salt stress

The accumulation of sodium chloride (NaCl) in soil is a worldwide problem with detrimental effects on the survival of soil animals. The effects of NaCl on earthworms remain unclear. Here, we show that the growth rate, cocoon production rate, annetocin precursor (ANN) mRNA level, and superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in earthworms were reduced under NaCl stress, whereas the mortality rate, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde activity level increased. Histological damage to the earthworm body wall and intestine were observed under NaCl stress. NaCl stress increased DNA damage in the seminal vesicle and coelomocytes. The mRNA level of lumbrokinase, 1,3-beta-glucanse, coelomic cytolytic factor (CCF1), and alpha-amylase was significantly down-regulated, whereas that of earthworm excitatory peptides2 (EEP2) was up-regulated. From 16 S rRNA sequencing, the earthworm gut microbiota diversity decreased under NaCl stress. However, Verminephrobacter, Kluyvera, Lactobacillus, and Ochrobactrum increased under NaCl stress. These findings contribute to the risk assessment of the salt stress on soil organisms.

Bioevaluation of Pheretima vulgaris Antithrombotic Extract, PvQ, and Isolation, Identification of Six Novel PvQ-Derived Fibrinolytic Proteases

Thrombosis is a disease that seriously endangers human health, with a high rate of mortality and disability. However, current treatments with thrombolytic drugs (such as recombinant tissue-plasminogen activator) and the oral anticoagulants (such as dabigatran and rivaroxaban) are reported to have a tendency of major or life-threatening bleeding, such as intracranial hemorrhage or massive gastrointestinal bleed with non-specific antidotes. In contrast, lumbrokinase is very specific to fibrin as a substrate and does not cause excessive bleeding. It can dissolve the fibrin by itself or convert plasminogen to plasmin by inducing endogenous t-PA activity to dissolve fibrin clots. Therefore, searching for potentially new therapeutic molecules from earthworms is significant. In this study, we first collected a strong fibrinolytic extract (PvQ) from the total protein of the Pheretima vulgaris with AKTA pure protein purification systems; its fibrinolytic bioactivity was verified by the fibrin plate assay and zebrafish thrombotic model of vascular damage. Furthermore, according to the cell culture model of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), the PvQ was proven to exhibit the ability to promote the secretion of tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA), which further illustrated that it has an indirect thrombolytic effect. Subsequently, extensive chromatographic techniques were applied to reveal the material basis of the extract. Fortunately, six novel earthworm fibrinolytic enzymes were obtained from the PvQ, and the primary sequences of those functional proteins were determined by LC-MS/MStranscriptome cross-identification and the Edman degradation assay. The secondary structures of these six fibrinolytic enzymes were determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy and the three-dimensional structures of these proteases were predicted by MODELLER 9.23 based on multi-template modelling. In addition, those six genes encoding blood clot-dissolving proteins were cloned from P. vulgaris by RT-PCR amplification, which further determined the accuracy of proteins primary sequences identifications and laid the foundation for subsequent heterologous expression.

Transient Expression of Lumbrokinase (PI239) in Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Using a Geminivirus-Based Single Replicon System Dissolves Fibrin and Blood Clots

Lumbrokinases, a group of fibrinolytic enzymes extracted from earthworm, have been widely used to prevent and treat various cardiovascular diseases. They specifically target fibrin to effectively degrade thrombi without major side effects. Plant expression systems are becoming potential alternative expression platforms for producing pharmaceutical proteins. In this work, a lumbrokinase (PI239) was produced from a plant system. Both wild-type (WT) and plant codon-optimized (OP) PI239 gene sequences were synthesized and cloned into a geminivirus-based single-vector DNA replicon system. Both vectors were independently expressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves transiently by agroinfiltration. Overexpressed PI239 resulted in sudden tissue necrosis 3 days after infiltration. Remaining proteins were purified through His-tag affinity chromatography and analyzed with SDS-PAGE and Western blot methods. Purified PI239 successfully degraded artificial fibrin with relative activity of 13,400 U/mg when compared with commercial lumbrokinase product. In vitro tests demonstrated that plant-derived PI239 dissolved human blood clots and that the plant expression system is capable of producing functional PI239.

Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates: a comparative survey and review

Traditional healing methods involving hundreds of insect and other invertebrate species are reviewed. Some of the uses are based on the tenet of "similia similibus" (let likes be cured by likes), but not all non-conventional health promoting practices should be dismissed as superstition or wishful thinking, for they have stood the test of time. Two questions are addressed: how can totally different organ systems in a human possibly benefit from extracts, potions, powders, secretions, ashes, etc. of a single species and how can different target organs, e.g. bronchi, lungs, the urinary bladder, kidneys, etc. apparently respond to a range of taxonomically not even closely related species? Even though therapeutically used invertebrates are generally small, they nevertheless possess organs for specific functions, e.g. digestion, gas exchange, reproduction. They have a nervous system, endocrine glands, a heart and muscle tissue and they contain a multitude of different molecules like metabolites, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, secretions, etc. that have come under increased scientific scrutiny for pharmacological properties. Bearing that in mind it seems likely that a single species prepared and used in different ways could have a multitude of uses. But how, for example, can there be remedies for breathing and other problems, involving earthworms, molluscs, termites, beetles, cockroaches, bugs, and dragonflies? Since invertebrates themselves can suffer from infections and cancers, common defence reactions are likely to have evolved in all invertebrates, which is why it would be far more surprising to find that each species had evolved its own unique disease fighting system. To obtain a more comprehensive picture, however, we still need information on folk medicinal uses of insects and other invertebrates from a wider range of regions and ethnic groups, but this task is hampered by western-based medicines becoming increasingly dominant and traditional healers being unable and sometimes even unwilling to transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. However, collecting and uncontrolled uses of therapeutic invertebrates can put undue pressure on certain highly sought after species and this is something that has to be borne in mind as well.

Understanding nutrition and immunity in disease management

As we search for answers to modern medicine's most prevalent and challenging problems, the relationship between nutrition, immunity, and biological function of various natural compounds are preimminent. Nutritional research involving genomics provides rational capabilities for preventing disease. Scientific advances in genomic sequencing reveal opportunities for exploring diet-health relationships and potential for individual, genotype based dietary recommendations. Utilizing molecular and genetic technology to analyze impact of nutrition on genomics and metabolism reveals that nutrients may influence certain innate and/or acquired immune functions. By analyzing immune mechanisms including their cells and complex molecules, animal models have offered relevant insight that clarifies interrelations between immunity and nutrition. Plant products also provide numerous resources through bioengineering for designing novel pharmaceuticals. Having long been employed successfully in traditional and folk medicines, plant compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and angiogenic activity. As a result, we now have a promising arsenal for successful application of bioactive compounds.

Lumbrokinase attenuates myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury by inhibiting TLR4 signaling

Lumbrokinase, a novel antithrombotic agent, purified from the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus, has been clinically used to treat stroke and cardiovascular diseases. However, inflammatory responses associated with the cardioprotective effect of lumbrokinase remain unknown. In this study, the signaling pathways involved in lumbrokinase-inhibited expressions of inflammation mediators were investigated in rats subjected to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury. The left main coronary artery of anesthetized rats was subjected to 1h occlusion and 3h reperfusion. The animals were treated with/without lumbrokinase and the severities of I-R-induced arrhythmias and infarction were compared. Lumbrokinase inhibited I-R-induced arrhythmias and reduced mortality, as well as decreased the lactate dehydrogenase levels in carotid blood. Lumbrokinase also inhibited the enhancement of I-R induced expressions of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 through toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway. Moreover, our results demonstrated that stimulation with lumbrokinase decreases the phosphorylation of JNK, IκB, and NF-κB. These findings suggested that lumbrokinase is a potent cardioprotective drug in rats with I-R injury. The cardioprotective effects of lumbrokinase may be correlated with its inhibitory effect on the I-R-induced expressions of COX-2, iNOS and MMP-9, mediated by TLR4 signaling through JNK and NF-κB pathways.

Ectopic expression of human acidic fibroblast growth factor 1 in the medicinal plant, Salvia miltiorrhiza, accelerates the healing of burn wounds

Background

Healing of burns is a complex process and very few effective treatments exist to facilitate the burn recovery process. Human acidic fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1) plays an important role in a variety of biological processes, including angiogenesis, and tissue repair. Salvia miltiorrhiza is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine as an herb for the treatment of various diseases, including cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and traumatic injuries. We present that expression of FGF-1 in S. miltiorrhiza significantly accelerates the healing of burn wounds.

Results

The human fgf-1 gene was fused with a barley α-amylase signal peptide DNA sequence and driven by a 35S promoter for constitutive expression in transgenic S. miltiorrhiza plants. The highest yield of recombinant FGF-1 obtained from leaves of transgenic S. miltiorrhiza lines was 272 ng/fresh weight. Aqueous extracts from transgenic S. miltiorrhiza exhibited FGF-1 activity approximately 19.2-fold greater than that of the standard FGF-1. Compared to the standard FGF-1 or the extracts obtained from non-transgenic plants, it stimulated proliferation of Balb/c 3 T3 mouse fibroblast cells assessed with the standard MTT assay and promoted angiogenesis in the chicken embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Topical application of the extract significantly accelerated the burn wound healing process.

Conclusions

The product appears to retain the biological activity of both FGF-1 as well as the medicinal properties of the plant. The extracts from transgenic S. miltiorrhiza combines the therapeutic functions of FGF-1 and the medicinal plant, S. miltiorrhiza. Topical application of the product can reduce the costs associated with extraction, purification, and recovery.

Expression of cholera toxin B subunit-lumbrokinase in edible sunflower seeds-the use of transmucosal carrier to enhance its fusion protein's effect on protection of rats and mice against thrombosis

Lumbrokinase (LK) is a group of serine proteases with strong fibrinolytic and thrombolytic activities and is useful for treating diseases caused by thrombus. Cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) has been widely used to facilitate antigen delivery by serving as an effective mucosal carrier molecule for the induction of oral tolerance. We investigate here the application of CTB as a transmucosal carrier in enhancing its fusion protein-LKs effect to protect rats against thrombosis. Thus, in this study, CTB-LK fusion gene separated by a furin cleavage site was expressed in seeds of Helianthus annuus L. The activity of recombinant protein in seeds of transgenic sunflower was confirmed by Western blot analysis, fibrin plate assays and GM1 -ganglioside ELISA. The thrombosis model of rats and mice revealed that the oral administration of peeled seeds of sunflower expressing CTB-LK had a more significant anti-thrombotic effect on animals compared with that administration of peeled seeds of sunflower expressing LK. It is possible to conclude that CTB can successfully enhance its fusion protein to be absorbed in rats or mice thrombosis model. The use of CTB as a transmucosal carrier in the delivery of transgenic plant-derived oral therapeutic proteins was supported. In addition, for the purpose of that recombinant CTB-LK was designed for oral administration, thus the expression of CTB-LK in edible sunflower seeds eliminated the need for downstream processing of proteins.

Recombinant protein production of earthworm lumbrokinase for potential antithrombotic application

Earthworms have been used as a traditional medicine in China, Japan, and other Far East countries for thousands of years. Oral administration of dry earthworm powder is considered as a potent and effective supplement for supporting healthy blood circulation. Lumbrokinases are a group of enzymes that were isolated and purified from different species of earthworms. These enzymes are recognized as fibrinolytic agents that can be used to treat various conditions associated with thrombosis. Many lumbrokinase (LK) genes have been cloned and characterized. Advances in genetic technology have provided the ability to produce recombinant LK and have made it feasible to purify a single lumbrokinase enzyme for potential antithrombotic application. In this review, we focus on expression systems that can be used for lumbrokinase production. In particular, the advantages of using a transgenic plant system to produce edible lumbrokinase are described.

Origin of innate immune responses: revelation of food and medicinal applications

Much is known about the strong ecological impact that earthworms ( Qiū Yǐn; Pheretima) have on soil in terms of fertility, nutrient production, and tilling. Even more interesting though is the impact they have had on our understanding of innate immunity, and from this discovery, there has been a simultaneous recognition of their potential through their historical use as food and their use in treatment of certain chronic health problems that often afflict humans. This bifurcating growing knowledge base has stemmed from centuries of honing and practicing traditional and complementary forms of medicine such as Ayurveda (India) Traditional Chinese Medicine (China), Kampo (Japan), and Traditional Korean Medicine (Korea). Earthworms (Dilong) have also been credited as a model for research concerning the nervous and endocrine systems. One of the reasons behind the earthworm's tremendous impact on research into these biomedical endeavors is partly due to its lack of ethical restrictions, like those imposed on vertebrate models. Using invertebrate models as opposed to mice or other mammalian models bypasses ethical concerns. Moreover, financial constraints consistently hover over biological research that requires living subjects, preferably mammals. Earthworms are a rich source of several vital biological macromolecules and other nutrients. They have long been used as food in several cultures such as the Ye'Kuana in Venezuela, the Maori in New Zealand, and the nomadic populations in Papua New Guinea. Earthworms and their nutritious products have been shown to exert significant effects in treating humans for disorders of inflammation and blood coagulation. One area that continues to be examined is the earthworm's ability to regenerate lost appendages, and these effects have been extended to mammals. Evidence reveals that earthworm extracts may actually promote the regeneration of damaged nerves. This presentation will explore how earthworms may reveal significant advances and conclusions that decipher innate immunity. This is intimately associated with them as sources of their various nutritional and medicinal benefits.