Characterization of a chromosomal type II toxin-antitoxin system mazEaFa in the Cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120

The VapBC-4 Characterization Indicates It Is a Bona Fide Toxin-Antitoxin Module of Leptospira interrogans: Initial Evidence for a Role in Bacterial Adaptation

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are one of the bacterial adaptation mechanisms to adverse conditions. Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni contains nine putative TA systems. To date, only VapBC-3 and VapBC-1 have been experimentally characterized and considered functional modules. This study shows that the VapBC-4 module is a novel bona fide TA system constituted by VapB-4 antitoxin and VapC-4 toxin. Overexpression of the recombinant toxin in Escherichia coli resulted in growth inhibition, which was rescued by co-expression of the VapB-4 antitoxin. The toxin-antitoxin binding capability, essential to TA functionality, was demonstrated by dot blot assay in vitro, while the pull-down assay indicates that the toxin and antitoxin interact in vivo. In addition, we confirmed that VapC-4 is a PIN domain endoribonuclease capable of degrading viral MS2 substrate. The transcriptional studies suggest that vapC-4 may be involved in the virulence and adaptability of L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni for adverse environmental conditions. Taken together, these results show that the VapBC-4 module is functional and can be considered a bona fide module.

Coordinated proteome change precedes cell lysis and death in a mat-forming cyanobacterium

Cyanobacteria form dense multicellular communities that experience transient conditions in terms of access to light and oxygen. These systems are productive but also undergo substantial biomass turnover through cell death, supplementing heightened heterotrophic respiration. Here we use metagenomics and metaproteomics to survey the molecular response of a mat-forming cyanobacterium undergoing mass cell lysis after exposure to dark and anoxic conditions. A lack of evidence for viral, bacterial, or eukaryotic antagonism contradicts commonly held beliefs on the causative agent for cyanobacterial death during dense growth. Instead, proteogenomics data indicated that lysis likely resulted from a genetically programmed response triggered by a failure to maintain osmotic pressure in the wake of severe energy limitation. Cyanobacterial DNA was rapidly degraded, yet cyanobacterial proteins remained abundant. A subset of proteins, including enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism, peptidases, toxin-antitoxin systems, and a potentially self-targeting CRISPR-Cas system, were upregulated upon lysis, indicating possible involvement in the programmed cell death response. We propose this natural form of cell death could provide new pathways for controlling harmful algal blooms and for sustainable bioproduct production.

Functional and transcriptional analysis of chromosomal encoded hipBAXn2 type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) module from Xenorhabdus nematophila

Xenorhabdus nematophila is an entomopathogenic bacterium that synthesizes numerous toxins and kills its larval insect host. Apart from such toxins, its genome also has a plethora of toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems. The role of TA systems in bacterial physiology is debatable; however, they are associated with maintaining bacterial genomic stability and their survival under adverse environmental conditions. Here, we explored the functionality and transcriptional regulation of the type II hipBA^Xn2 TA system. This TA system was identified in the genome of X. nematophila ATCC 19061, which consists of the hipA^Xn2 toxin gene encoding 278 amino acid residues and hipB^Xn2 encoding antitoxin of 135 amino acid residues. We showed that overexpression of HipA^Xn2 toxin reduced the growth of Escherichia coli cells in a bacteriostatic manner, and amino-acids G8, H164, N167, and S169 were key residues for this growth reduction. Promoter activity and expression profiling of the hipBA^Xn2 TA system was showed that transcription was induced in both E. coli as well as X. nematophila upon exposure to different stress conditions. Further, we have exhibited the binding features of HipA^Xn2 toxin and HipB^Xn2 antitoxin to their promoter. This study provides evidence for the presence of a functional and well-regulated hipBA^Xn2 TA system in X. nematophila.

Synthetic counter-selection markers and their application in genetic modification of Synechococcus elongatus UTEX2973

Due to its robustness to environmental stresses and fast growth, Synechococcus elongatus UTEX2973 is developed as a new model for researches on cyanobacterial molecular biology and biotechnology. However, systematic genetic modifications of S. elongatus UTEX2973 were hindered by the lack of effective genetic manipulation tools, especially available counter-selection markers. Here, six synthetic counter-selection markers (SCOMs) were assembled by fusing six toxin genes from either Escherichia coli or cyanobacteria with a theophylline-inducible promoter. The SCOMs containing SYNPCC7002_G0085 from Synechococcus sp. PCC7002 or mazF from E. coli were proved to be inducible by theophylline in S. elongatus UTEX2973. By using the mazF-based SCOM, the neutral locus 1 and 23 small regulatory RNAs were completely deleted from the genome of S. elongatus UTEX2973 after one round of selection with both kanamycin and theophylline. The genetic tools developed in this work will facilitate future researches on molecular genetics and synthetic biology in S. elongatus UTEX2973. KEY POINTS: • Two inducible counter-selection markers are lethal to S. elongatus UTEX2973. • The counter-selection marker benefits the gene targeting in S. elongatus UTEX2973. • Twentry-three small regulatory RNAs were fully deleted via the novel gene targeting method.

The Cysteine Protease MaOC1, a Prokaryotic Caspase Homolog, Cleaves the Antitoxin of a Type II Toxin-Antitoxin System

The bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa is known for its global distribution and for the production of toxic compounds. In the genome of M. aeruginosa PCC 7806, we discovered that the gene coding for MaOC1, a caspase homolog protease, is followed by a toxin-antitoxin module, flanked on each side by a direct repeat. We therefore investigated their possible interaction at the protein level. Our results suggest that this module belongs to the ParE/ParD-like superfamily of type II toxin-antitoxin systems. In solution, the antitoxin is predominantly alpha-helical and dimeric. When coexpressed with its cognate toxin and isolated from Escherichia coli, it forms a complex, as revealed by light scattering and affinity purification. The active site of the toxin is restricted to the C-terminus of the molecule. Its truncation led to normal cell growth, while the wild-type form prevented bacterial growth in liquid medium. The orthocaspase MaOC1 was able to cleave the antitoxin so that it could no longer block the toxin activity. The most likely target of the protease was the C-terminus of the antitoxin with two sections of basic amino acid residues. E. coli cells in which MaOC1 was expressed simultaneously with the toxin-antitoxin pair were unable to grow. In contrast, no effect on cell growth was found when using a proteolytically inactive MaOC1 mutant. We thus present the first case of a cysteine protease that regulates the activity of a toxin-antitoxin module, since all currently known activating proteases are of the serine type.

The hipBAXn operon from Xenorhabdus nematophila functions as a bonafide toxin-antitoxin module

Here, for the first time, we have investigated the hipBA^Xn toxin-antitoxin (TA) module from entomopathogenic bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila. It is a type II TA module that consists of HipA^Xn toxin and HipB^Xn antitoxin protein and located in the complementary strand of chromosome under XNC1_operon 0810 locus tag. For functional analysis, hipA^Xn toxin, hipB^Xn antitoxin, and an operon having both genes were cloned in pBAD/His C vector and transformed in Escherichia coli cells. The expression profiles and endogenous toxicity assay were performed in these cells. To determine the active amino acid residues responsible for the toxicity of HipA^Xn toxin, site-directed mutagenesis (SDM) was performed. SDM results showed that amino acid residues S149, D306, and D329 in HipA^Xn toxin protein were significantly essential for its toxicity. For transcriptional analysis, the 157 bp upstream region of the hipBA^Xn TA module was identified as a promoter with bioinformatics tools. Further, the LacZ reporter construct with promoter region was prepared and LacZ assays as well as reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis was performed under different stress conditions. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) was also performed with recombinant HipA^Xn toxin, HipB^Xn antitoxin protein, and 157 bp promoter region. Results showed that the hipBA^Xn TA module is a well-regulated system in which the upregulation of gene expression was also found compulsive in different SOS conditions. KEY POINTS: •Functional characterization of hipBA ^Xn TA module from Xenorhabdus nematophila. •hipBA ^Xn TA module is a functional type II TA module. •Transcriptional characterization of hipBA ^Xn TA module. •hipBA ^Xn TA module is a well regulated TA module. Graphical abstract.

A Toxin-Antitoxin System VapBC15 from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 Shows Distinct Regulatory Features

Type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems play important roles in bacterial stress survival by regulating cell growth or death. They are highly abundant in cyanobacteria yet remain poorly characterized. Here, we report the identification and regulation of a putative type II TA system from Synechocystis PCC6803, VapBC15. The VapBC15 system is encoded by the chromosomal operon vapBC15. Exogenous expression of VapC15 dramatically arrested cell growth of Escherichia coli and reduced the numbers of colony-forming units (CFU). The VapC15 toxicity could be which was counteracted neutralized by simultaneous or delayed production of VapB15. Biochemical analysis demonstrated the formation of VapB15-VapC15 complexes by the physical interaction between VapB15 and VapC15. Notably, the VapB15 antitoxin up-regulated the transcription of the vapBC15 operon by directly binding to the promoter region, and the VapC15 toxin abolished the up-regulatory effect by destabilizing the binding. Moreover, VapB15 can be degraded by the proteases Lons and ClpXP2s from Synechocystis PCC6803, thus activating the latent toxicity of VapBC15. These findings suggest that VapBC15 represents a genuine TA system that utilizes a distinct mechanism to regulate toxin activity.

Identification of four type II toxin-antitoxin systems in Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements that are widely prevalent in the genomes of bacteria and archaea. These modules have been identified in various bacteria and proposed to play an important role in bacterial physiology and virulence. However, their presence in the genomes of Actinobacillus species has received no attention. In this study, we describe the identification of four type II TA systems in Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, the causative agent of porcine pleuropneumonia. Reverse transcription PCR analysis revealed that the genes encoding the toxin and antitoxin are co-transcribed. Overexpression of each toxin inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, and the toxic effect could be counteracted by its cognate antitoxin. The pull-down experiments demonstrated that each toxin interacts with its cognate antitoxin in vivo. The promoter activity assays showed that each antitoxin could autoregulate either positively or negatively the TA operon transcription. In addition, the APJL_0660/0659 TA system is present in half of the detected serovars of A. pleuropneumoniae, while the others are present in all. Collectively, we identified four type II TA systems in A. pleuropneumoniae, and this study has laid the foundation for further functional study of these TA systems.

Toxin-Antitoxin Systems in Estuarine Synechococcus Strain CB0101 and Their Transcriptomic Responses to Environmental Stressors

Bacterial toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its cognate antitoxin, with the ability to regulate growth. TA systems have not previously been reported in marine Synechococcus or Prochlorococcus. Here we report the finding of seven TA system pairs (Type II) in the estuarine Synechococcus CB0101, and their responses of these TA genes to under different stress conditions, which include; nitrogen and phosphate starvation, phage infection, zinc toxicity, and photo-oxidation. Database searches discovered that eight other marine Synechococcus strains also contain at least one TA pair but none were found in Prochlorococcus. We demonstrate that the relB/relE TA pair was active and resulted in RNA degradation when CB0101 was under oxidative stress caused by either zinc toxicity or high light intensities, but the growth inhibition was released when the stress was removed. Having TA systems allows Synechococcus CB0101 to adapt to the low light and highly variable environments in the Chesapeake Bay. We propose that TA systems could be more important for picocyanobacteria living in the freshwater and estuarine environments compared to those living in the open ocean.

Interactions of Freshwater Cyanobacteria with Bacterial Antagonists

Cyanobacterial and algal mass development, or blooms, have severe effects on freshwater and marine systems around the world. Many of these phototrophs produce a variety of potent toxins, contribute to oxygen depletion, and affect water quality in several ways. Coexisting antagonists, such as cyanolytic bacteria, hold the potential to suppress, or even terminate, such blooms, yet the nature of this interaction is not well studied. We isolated 31 cyanolytic bacteria affiliated with the genera Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Acinetobacter, and Delftia from three eutrophic freshwater lakes in Sweden and selected four phylogenetically diverse bacterial strains with strong-to-moderate lytic activity. To characterize their functional responses to the presence of cyanobacteria, we performed RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) experiments on coculture incubations, with an initial predator-prey ratio of 1:1. Genes involved in central cellular pathways, stress-related heat or cold shock proteins, and antitoxin genes were highly expressed in both heterotrophs and cyanobacteria. Heterotrophs in coculture expressed genes involved in cell motility, signal transduction, and putative lytic activity. l,d-Transpeptidase was the only significantly upregulated lytic gene in Stenotrophomonas rhizophila EK20. Heterotrophs also shifted their central metabolism from the tricarboxylic acid cycle to the glyoxylate shunt. Concurrently, cyanobacteria clearly show contrasting antagonistic interactions with the four tested heterotrophic strains, which is also reflected in the physical attachment to their cells. In conclusion, antagonistic interactions with cyanobacteria were initiated within 24 h, and expression profiles suggest varied responses for the different cyanobacteria and studied cyanolytes.IMPORTANCE Here, we present how gene expression profiles can be used to reveal interactions between bloom-forming freshwater cyanobacteria and antagonistic heterotrophic bacteria. Species-specific responses in both heterotrophs and cyanobacteria were identified. The study contributes to a better understanding of the interspecies cellular interactions underpinning the persistence and collapse of cyanobacterial blooms.

Comparative analysis of MazEF and HicAB toxin-antitoxin systems of the cyanobacterium, Anabaena sp. PCC7120

Anabaena PCC7120 has two annotated toxin-antitoxin systems: MazEF and HicAB. Overexpression of either of the toxins severely inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli BL21(plysS)(DE3). Of the two Anabaena toxins, MazF exhibited higher toxicity than HicA as evidenced by (i) 100-fold lower viability upon overexpression of MazF compared to HicA; (ii) complete loss of cell viability within 1 h of induction of MazF expression, as against >10³ colony forming units mL^-1 in case of HicA; (iii) inability to maintain the MazF overexpressing plasmid in E. coli cells; and (iv) neutralisation of the toxin was effective at the molar ratio of 1:1.9 for MazF:MazE and 13:1 for HicA:HicB, indicating higher antitoxin requirement for neutralisation of MazF. The growth inhibitory effect of MazF was found to be higher in lag phase cultures compared to mid-logarithmic phase cultures of E. coli, while the reverse was true for HicA. The results suggest possible distinct roles for MazEF and HicAB systems of Anabaena.

Identification and Characterization of the HicAB Toxin-Antitoxin System in the Opportunistic Pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic modules that are widely distributed in the genomes of bacteria and archaea and have been proposed to fulfill numerous functions. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of a type II TA system, comprising the hicAB locus in the human opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The hicAB locus consists of genes hicA and hicB encoding a toxin and its cognate antitoxin, respectively. BLAST analysis revealed that hicAB is prevalent in approximately 36% of P. aeruginosa strains and locates in the same genomic region. RT-PCR demonstrated that hicAB forms a bicistronic operon that is cotranscribed under normal growth conditions. Overproduction of HicA inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, and this effect could be counteracted by co-expression of HicB. The Escherichia coli kill/rescue assay showed that the effect of HicA is bacteriostatic, rather than bactericidal. Deletion of hicAB had no effect on the biofilm formation and virulence of P. aeruginosa in a mice infection model. Collectively, this study presents the first characterization of the HicAB system in the opportunistic pathogen P. aeruginosa.

The chromosomal SezAT toxin-antitoxin system promotes the maintenance of the SsPI-1 pathogenicity island in epidemic Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis has emerged as a causative agent of human meningitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome over the last years. The high pathogenicity of S. suis may be due in part to a laterally acquired pathogenicity island (renamed SsPI-1), which can spontaneously excise and transfer to recipients. Cells harboring excised SsPI-1 can potentially lose this island if cell division occurs prior to its reintegration; however, attempts to cure SsPI-1 from the host cells have been unsuccessful. Here, we report that an SsPI-1-borne Epsilon/Zeta toxin-antitoxin system (designated SezAT) promotes SsPI-1 stability in bacterial populations. The sezAT locus consists of two closely linked sezT and sezA genes encoding a toxin and its cognate antitoxin, respectively. Overproduction of SezT induces a bactericidal effect that can be neutralized by co-expression of SezA, but not by its later action. When devoid of a functional SezAT system, large-scale deletion of SsPI-1 is straightforward. Thus, SezAT serves to ensure inheritance of SsPI-1 during cell division, which may explain the persistence of epidemic S. suis. This report presents the first functional characterization of TA loci in S. suis, and the first biochemical evidence for the adaptive significance of the Epsilon/Zeta system in the evolution of pathogen virulence.

The mazEF toxin-antitoxin system as a novel antibacterial target in Acinetobacter baumannii

Although analysis of toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems can be instructive, to date, there is no information on the prevalence and identity of TA systems based on a large panel of Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates. The aim of the current study was to screen for functional TA systems among clinical isolates of A. baumannii and to identify the systems' locations. For this purpose, we screened 85 A. baumannii isolates collected from different clinical sources for the presence of the mazEF, relBE and higBA TA genes. The results revealed that the genes coding for the mazEF TA system were commonly present in all clinical isolates of A. baumannii. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that transcripts were produced in the clinical isolates. Our findings showed that TA genes are prevalent, harboured by chromosomes and transcribed within A. baumannii. Hence, activation of the toxin proteins in the mazEF TA system should be investigated further as an effective antibacterial strategy against this bacterium.

Transcriptional and proteolytic regulation of the toxin-antitoxin locus vapBC10 (ssr2962/slr1767) on the chromosome of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

VapBC toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are defined by the association of a PIN-domain toxin with a DNA-binding antitoxin, and are thought to play important physiological roles in bacteria and archaea. Recently, the PIN-associated gene pair PIN-COG2442 was proposed to encode VapBC-family TA system and found to be abundant in cyanobacteria. However, the features of these predicted TA loci remain under investigation. We here report characterization of the PIN-COG2442 locus vapBC10 (ssr2962/slr1767) on the chromosome of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. RT-PCR analysis revealed that the vapBC10 genes were co-transcribed under normal growth conditions. Ectopic expression of the PIN-domain protein VapC10 caused growth arrest of Escherichia coli that does not possess vapBC TA locus. Coincidentally, this growth-inhibition effect could be neutralized by either simultaneous or subsequent production of the COG2442-domain protein VapB10 through formation of the TA complex VapBC10 in vivo. In contrast to the transcription repression activity of the well-studied antitoxins, VapB10 positively auto-regulated the transcription of its own operon via specific binding to the promoter region. Furthermore, in vivo experiments in E. coli demonstrated that the Synechocystis protease ClpXP2s, rather than Lons, could cleave VapB10 and proteolytically activate the VapC10 toxicity. Our results show that the PIN-COG2442 locus vapBC10 encodes a functional VapBC TA system with an alternative mechanism for the transcriptional auto-regulation of its own operon.