Beauvericin ameliorates experimental colitis by inhibiting activated T cells via downregulation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

The Mechanism and Potential Therapeutic Effects of Cyclosporin, Cyclophilin, Probiotics and Syndecan-1 in an Animal Model of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Background: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) have several treatment modalities including immunoregulators, like cyclosporine A, an immunosuppressant that interacts with cytoplasmic cyclophilin A, and probiotics. Aims: This study explored and compared the possible role of syndecan-1 in the IBD pathogenic process as well as the effectiveness of cyclophilin A, cyclosporine A, and their combination in the management of IBDs in the presence of probiotics. Methodology: IBD was induced in a total of 112 mice equally divided between syndecan-1 knock-out (KO) and Balb/c wild-type mice, using 2% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) followed by intraperitoneal treatment with cyclosporine A, cyclophilin A, or a combination of both. In addition, a daily dose of probiotics was given in their drinking water. The animals were monitored for clinical signs and symptoms and checked for gross pathologies in the abdomen after 3 weeks. Descending and sigmoid colon biopsies were collected and fixed for routine microscopy or frozen for protein extraction and molecular testing for IL-6, CD3, CD147, and beta 1 integrins as well as pAkt expression. Results: The data showed that the induction of IBD in the syndecan-1 KO mice was more severe at the clinical, histological, and molecular levels than in the wild type. The combined CypA-CyA treatment showed no added inhibitory effect compared to single-drug treatment in both strains. Probiotics added to the combination was more effective in the wild type and, when used alone, its inhibition of IL-6 was the highest. As for the CD147 marker, there were more suppressions across the various groups in the KO mice except for the probiotics-alone group. Concerning CD3, it was significantly increased by the CypA-CyA complex, which led to more inflammation in the KO mice. Probiotics had little effect with the combination. In relation to beta 1 integrins, the CypA-CyA combination made no significant difference from CyA alone, and adding probiotics to the combination resulted in higher beta 1 integrin expression in the KO mice. As for pAkt, it was very well expressed and upregulated in both strains treated with DSS, but the effect was much larger in the KO mice. In brief, the CypA-CyA complex showed a decrease in the expression of pAkt, but there was no added effect of both drugs. Probiotics along with the complex had a similar reduction effects in both strains, with a greater effect in the wild-type mice, while probiotics alone led to a similar reduction in pAkt expressions in both strains. Conclusions: The differential effects of CyA, CypA, probiotics, and their combinations on the various inflammatory markers, as well as the histological alterations and clinical signs and symptoms, speak in favor of a clear role of syndecan-1 in reducing inflammation. However, probiotics need to be considered after more explorations into the mechanisms involved in the presence of CypA and CyA especially since pAkt is less active in their presence.

Gegen Qinlian standard decoction alleviated irinotecan-induced diarrhea via PI3K/AKT/NF-κB axis by network pharmacology prediction and experimental validation combination

BACKGROUND

The frequently occurred chemotherapy-induced diarrhea (CID) caused by irinotecan (CPT-11) administration has been the most representative side-effects of CPT-11, resulting in the chemotherapy suspension or failure. Our previous studies indicated that Gegen Qinlian formula exhibited a significant alleviation effect on CPT-11-induced diarrhea. However, referencing to Japanese Kampo medicine, the TCM standard decoction would supply the gap between ancient preparation application and modern industrial production.

METHODS

The LC-MS technology combined with network pharmacology was employed to identify the active ingredients and mechanisms of GQD standard decoction for CPT-11-induced diarrhea. The anti-inflammatory activities associated with intestinal barrier function of GQD standard decoction were studied by SN-38 activated NCM460 cells in vitro and CPT-11-induced diarrhea in vivo. Proteins involved in inflammation, mRNA levels, disease severity scores, and histology involved in intestinal inflammation were analysed.

RESULTS

There were 37 active compounds were identified in GQD standard decoction. Network pharmacology analyses indicated that PI3K-AKT signaling pathway were probably the main pathway of GQD standard decoction in CPT-11-induced diarrhea treatment, and PIK3R1, AKT1, NF-κB1 were the core proteins. Moreover, we found that the key proteins and pathway predicted above was verified in vivo and in vitro experiments, and the GQD standard decoction could protect the cellular proliferation in vitro and ameliorate CPT-11-induced diarrhea in mice model.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the molecular mechanism of 37 active ingredients in GQD standard decoction against CPT-11-induced diarrhea. And the core proteins and pathway were validated by experiment. This data establishes the groundwork for particular molecular mechanism of GQD standard decoction active components, and this research can provide a scientific reference for the TCM therapy of CID.

Exploring the Targets and Molecular Mechanisms of Thalidomide in the Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis: Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, nonspecific, inflammatory disease of the intestine with an unknown cause. Thalidomide (THA) has been shown to be an effective drug for the treatment of UC. However, the molecular targets and mechanism of action of THA for the treatment of UC are not yet clear.

OBJECTIVES

Combining network pharmacology with in vitro experiments, this study aimed to investigate the potential targets and molecular mechanisms of THA for the treatment of UC.

METHODS

Firstly, relevant targets of THA against UC were obtained from public databases. Then, the top 10 hub targets and key molecular mechanisms of THA for UC were screened based on the network pharmacology approach and bioinformatics method. Finally, an in vitro cellular inflammation model was constructed using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced intestinal epithelial cells (NCM460) to validate the top 10 hub targets and key signaling pathways.

RESULTS

A total of 121 relevant targets of THA against UC were obtained, of which the top 10 hub targets were SRC, LCK, MAPK1, HSP90AA1, EGFR, HRAS, JAK2, RAC1, STAT1, and MAP2K1. The PI3K-Akt pathway was significantly associated with THA treatment of UC. In vitro experiments revealed that THA treatment reversed the expression of HSP90AA1, EGFR, STAT1, and JAK2 differential genes. THA was able to up- regulate the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory factor IL-10 and decrease the mRNA levels of anti-inflammatory factors IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Furthermore, THA also exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway.

CONCLUSION

THA may play a therapeutic role in UC by inhibiting the PI3K-Akt pathway. HSP90AA1, EGFR, STAT1, and JAK2 may be the most relevant potential therapeutic targets for THA in the treatment of UC.

Differential proteomic of plasma provides a new perspective on scientific diagnosis and drug screening for dampness heat diarrhea in calves

Dampness heat diarrhea (DHD) is one of the most common syndromes of calf diarrhea. Its complex etiology and lack of objective diagnostic criteria bring great challenges to the diagnosis and treatment of this disease. This study aims to screen some prospective diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets for calves with DHD by investigating the differential protein profiles of plasma between DHD calves and clinically healthy calves by mass spectrometry-based proteomic. A total of 120 DHD calves and 90 clinically healthy calves were divided into two groups randomly, 30 DHD calves and 30 clinically healthy calves in the test group, and 90 DHD calves and 60 clinically healthy calves in the validation group. In the test group, a total of 52 proteins were differentially expressed between calves with DHD and clinically healthy calves, 13 proteins were significantly increased and 39 proteins were significantly decreased. The differentially expressed proteins were associated with the intestinal immune network of IgA production, caffeine metabolism, purine metabolism, and PI3K signaling pathway. In the validation group, 13 proteins were selected from 52 differential expression proteins for parallel reaction monitoring validation to verify their associations with DHD calves. The targeted proteomic results showed that fibronectin precursor (FN1) and apolipoprotein C-IV precursor (APOC4) were significantly associated with DHD in calves, and they were downregulated in sick calves. In conclusion, the differential expression of plasma proteins was associated with DHD pathogenesis in calves, and the FN1 and APOC4 might be the potential clinical biomarkers for diagnosis of DHD in calves, and the intestinal immune network of IgA production, caffeine metabolism, purine metabolism, and PI3K signaling pathway are the candidate targets to treat DHD in calves. Our finding provides a reference for further investigating the pathogenesis, developing techniques of diagnosis, and screening treatment drugs for DHD in calves.

Renshen Baidu powder protects ulcerative colitis via inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory bowel disease without satisfactory therapy available recently. Renshen Baidu powder (RSBDP) is a classic Chinese medicinal formula used since Chinese Song dynasty and has been proven as an effective treatment of ulcerative colitis in clinics. However, the active ingredients and the molecular mechanism have not been fully disclosed. It is imperative to explore the active ingredients and the mechanism of RSBDP. In this study, the potential active components for ulcerative colitis treatment in RSBDP were determined and predicted in silicon, and its molecular mechanisms were also presented, in which the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was recognized to be vital. Basically, the pharmacodynamics and mechanistic studies of RSBDP for ulcerative colitis were implemented on TNBS-induced experimental rats. The results showed that RSBDP could ameliorate the disease activity index and colon weight, as well as improve colonic shortening and colon histology. In addition, the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), diamine oxidase, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and endotoxin in serum were also reduced. It is worth mentioning that the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was inhibited after RSBDP administration via inhibiting the phosphorylation of proteins. In conclusion, RSBDP effectively ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis rats by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Multigene Phylogeny, Beauvericin Production and Bioactive Potential of Fusarium Strains Isolated in India

The taxonomy of the genus Fusarium has been in a flux because of ambiguous circumscription of species-level identification based on morphotaxonomic criteria. In this study, multigene phylogeny was conducted to resolve the evolutionary relationships of 88 Indian Fusarium isolates based on the internal transcribed spacer region, 28S large subunit, translation elongation factor 1-alpha, RNA polymerase second largest subunit, beta-tubulin and calmodulin gene regions. Fusarium species are well known to produce metabolites such as beauvericin (BEA) and enniatins. These identified isolates were subjected to fermentation in Fusarium-defined media for BEA production and tested using TLC, HPLC and HRMS. Among 88 isolates studied, 50 were capable of producing BEA, which varied from 0.01 to 15.82 mg/g of biomass. Fusarium tardicrescens NFCCI 5201 showed maximum BEA production (15.82 mg/g of biomass). The extract of F. tardicrescens NFCCI 5201 showed promising antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureusMLS16 MTCC 2940 and Micrococcus luteus MTCC 2470 with MIC of 62.5 and 15.63 µg/mL, respectively. Similarly, the F. tardicrescens NFCCI 5201 extract in potato dextrose agar (40 µg/mL) exhibited antifungal activity in the food poison technique against plant pathogenic and other fungi, Rhizoctonia solani NFCCI 4327, Sclerotium rolfsii NFCCI 4263, Geotrichum candidum NFCCI 3744 and Pythium sp. NFCCI 3482, showing % inhibition of 84.31, 49.76, 38.22 and 35.13, respectively. The antibiotic effect was found to synergize when Fusarium extract and amphotericin B (20 µg/mL each in potato dextrose agar) were used in combination against Rhizopus sp. NFCCI 2108, Sclerotium rolfsii NFCCI 4263, Bipolaris sorokiniana NFCCI 4690 and Absidia sp. NFCCI 2716, showing % inhibition of 50.35, 79.37, 48.07 and 76.72, respectively. The extract also showed satisfactory dose-dependent DPPH radical scavenging activity with an IC50 value of 0.675 mg/mL. This study reveals the correct identity of the Indian Fusarium isolates based on multigene phylogeny and also throws light on BEA production potential, suggesting their possible applicability in the medicine, agriculture and industry.

The Mycotoxin Beauvericin Exhibits Immunostimulatory Effects on Dendritic Cells via Activating the TLR4 Signaling Pathway

Beauvericin (BEA), a mycotoxin of the enniatin family produced by various toxigenic fungi, has been attributed multiple biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial functions. However, effects of BEA on dendritic cells remain unknown so far. Here, we identified effects of BEA on murine granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-cultured bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and the underlying molecular mechanisms. BEA potently activates BMDCs as signified by elevated IL-12 and CD86 expression. Multiplex immunoassays performed on myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain containing adaptor inducing interferon beta (TRIF) single or double deficient BMDCs indicate that BEA induces inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in a MyD88/TRIF dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that BEA was not able to induce IL-12 or IFNβ production in Toll-like receptor 4 (Tlr4)-deficient BMDCs, whereas induction of these cytokines was not compromised in Tlr3/7/9 deficient BMDCs. This suggests that TLR4 might be the functional target of BEA on BMDCs. Consistently, in luciferase reporter assays BEA stimulation significantly promotes NF-κB activation in mTLR4/CD14/MD2 overexpressing but not control HEK-293 cells. RNA-sequencing analyses further confirmed that BEA induces transcriptional changes associated with the TLR4 signaling pathway. Together, these results identify TLR4 as a cellular BEA sensor and define BEA as a potent activator of BMDCs, implying that this compound can be exploited as a promising candidate structure for vaccine adjuvants or cancer immunotherapies.

Study on the Effective Material Basis and Mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine Prescription (QJC) Against Stress Diarrhea in Mice

Stress diarrhea is a major challenge for weaned piglets and restricts pig production efficiency and incurs massive economic losses. A traditional Chinese medicine prescription (QJC) composed of Astragalus propinquus Schischkin (HQ), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (SJ), and Plantago asiatica L. (CQC) has been developed by our laboratory and shows marked anti-stress diarrhea effect. However, the active compounds, potential targets, and mechanism of this effect remain unclear and warrant further investigation. In our study, we verified the bioactive compounds of QJC and relevant mechanisms underlying the anti-stress diarrhea effect through network pharmacology and in vivo experimental studies. After establishing a successful stress-induced diarrhea model, histomorphology of intestinal mucosa was studied, and Quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) probe was used for the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signaling pathway to verify the therapeutic effect of QJC on diarrhea. First, using the network pharmacology approach, we identified 35 active components and 130 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways in QJC. From among these, we speculated that quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, scutellarein, and stigmasterol were the main bioactive compounds and assumed that the anti-diarrhea effect of QJC was related to the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. The RT-qPCR indicated that QJC and its bioactive components increased the expression levels of PI3K and Akt, inhibited the expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), and activated the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway to relieve stress-induced diarrhea. Furthermore, we found that QJC alleviated the pathological condition of small intestine tissue and improved the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Taken together, our study showed that the traditional Chinese medicine QJC, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, scutellarein, and stigmasterol alleviated the pathological condition of small intestine tissue and relieved stress-induced diarrhea by increasing the expression levels of PI3K and Akt and inhibiting the expression levels of PTEN.

In Silico and In Vivo Studies on the Mechanisms of Chinese Medicine Formula (Gegen Qinlian Decoction) in the Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, and Gegen Qinlian Decoction (GQD), a Chinese botanical formula, has exhibited beneficial efficacy against UC. However, the mechanisms underlying the effect of GQD still remain to be elucidated. In this study, network pharmacology approach and molecular docking in silico were applied to uncover the potential multicomponent synergetic effect and molecular mechanisms. The targets of ingredients in GQD were obtained from Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP) and Bioinformatics Analysis Tool for Molecular mechANism of TCM (BATMAN-TCM) database, while the UC targets were retrieved from Genecards, therapeutic target database (TTD) and Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database. The topological parameters of Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) data were used to screen the hub targets in the network. The possible mechanisms were investigated with gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Molecular docking was used to verify the binding affinity between the active compounds and hub targets. Network pharmacology analysis successfully identified 77 candidate compounds and 56 potential targets. The targets were further mapped to 20 related pathways to construct a compound-target-pathway network and an integrated network of GQD treating UC. Among these pathways, PI3K-AKT, HIF-1, VEGF, Ras, and TNF signaling pathways may exert important effects in the treatment of UC via inflammation suppression and anti-carcinogenesis. In the animal experiment, treatment with GQD and sulfasalazine (SASP) both ameliorated inflammation in UC. The proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) induced by UC were significantly decreased by GQD and SASP. Moreover, the protein expression of EGFR, PI3K, and phosphorylation of AKT were reduced after GQD and SASP treatment, and there was no significance between the GQD group and SASP group. Our study systematically dissected the molecular mechanisms of GQD on the treatment of UC using network pharmacology, as well as uncovered the therapeutic effects of GQD against UC through ameliorating inflammation via downregulating EGFR/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and the pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6.

Vildagliptin attenuates acetic acid-induced colitis in rats via targeting PI3K/Akt/NFκB, Nrf2 and CREB signaling pathways and the expression of lncRNA IFNG-AS1 and miR-146a

Inflammatory processes, including ulcerative colitis (UC), are associated with the increase in synthesis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The release of these cytokines is regulated by phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) signaling pathways as well as over expression of microRNA 146a (miR-146a) and long non-coding RNA interferon gamma antisense 1 (lncRNA IFNG-AS1). Vildagliptin (Vilda), a dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitor, has an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects which were established in various models. However, its possible protective effect in UC has not been clarified. Hence, the current study aimed to explore the possible prophylactic effect of different doses of Vilda against acetic acid (AA)-induced colitis in rats. Forty-eight adult Wistar rats were divided into six groups: control, Vilda (10 mg/kg/day; p.o.), AA, AA + Vilda (5 mg/kg/day; p.o.), AA + Vilda (10 mg/kg/day; p.o.) and AA + sulfasalazine (Sulfa) (100 mg/kg/day; p.o.).Low- and high-dose Vilda showed significant improvement in the disease activity index (DAI) and macroscopic assessment markers. Vilda has markedly inhibited the expression of lncRNA IFNG-AS1 and miR-146a, as well as PI3K/Akt/NFκB pathway, while activated CREB and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathways, and this was reflected in alleviated oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. Such outcomes were more prominent with the high-dose Vilda versus low-dose Vilda and Sulfa. Moreover, the histological examination showed almost intact histological features in Vilda-treated groups when compared to AA group treated with saline. In conclusion, Vilda can be regarded as a new promising therapeutic alternative against UC.

Feedborne Mycotoxins Beauvericin and Enniatins and Livestock Animals

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several species of fungi, including the Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species. Currently, more than 300 structurally diverse mycotoxins are known, including a group called minor mycotoxins, namely enniatins, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin. Beauvericin and enniatins possess a variety of biological activities. Their antimicrobial, antibiotic, or ionoforic activities have been proven and according to various bioassays, they are believed to be toxic. They are mainly found in cereal grains and their products, but they have also been detected in forage feedstuff. Mycotoxins in feedstuffs of livestock animals are of dual concern. First one relates to the safety of animal-derived food. Based on the available data, the carry-over of minor mycotoxins from feed to edible animal tissues is possible. The second concern relates to detrimental effects of mycotoxins on animal health and performance. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the relation of minor mycotoxins to livestock animals.

Prospects for Discovering the Secondary Metabolites of Cordyceps Sensu Lato by the Integrated Strategy

BACKGROUND

Some species of Cordyceps sensu lato are famous Chinese herbs with significant biological activities, often used as edible food and traditional medicine in China. Cordyceps represents the largest entomopathogenic group of fungi, including 40 genera and 1339 species in three families and incertae sedis of Hypocreales.

OBJECTIVE

Most of the Cordyceps-derivatives have been approved clinically for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, cancers, inflammation, cardiovascular, renal and neurological disorders and are used worldwide as supplements and herbal drugs, but there is still need for highly efficient Cordyceps-derived drugs for fatal diseases with approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

METHODS

Computer-aided drug design concepts could improve the discovery of putative Cordyceps- derived medicine within less time and low budget. The integration of computer-aided drug design methods with experimental validation has contributed to the successful discovery of novel drugs.

RESULTS

This review focused on modern taxonomy, active metabolites, and modern drug design techniques that could accelerate conventional drug design and discovery of Cordyceps s. l. Successful application of computer-aided drug design methods in Cordyceps research has been discussed.

CONCLUSION

It has been concluded that computer-aided drug design techniques could influence the multiple target-focused drug design, because each metabolite of Cordyceps has shown significant activities for the various diseases with very few or no side effects.

Dihydroartemisinin Protects against Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice through Inhibiting the PI3K/AKT and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Ulcerative colitis is a common inflammatory bowel disease, and the activation of thePI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways plays a pivotal role in its pathogenesis. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) is a widely used antimalarial drug and has shown anticancer effect partially through inhibiting the activation of PI3K/AKT and NF-κB. This study aimed to investigate the effect of dihydroartemisinin on ulcerative colitis and its mechanism. Adult male C57 mice were subjected to 3.0% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) for seven days; simultaneously, dihydroartemisinin or control saline was administered by oral gavage once a day. In vitro, the intestinal epithelial cell-6 was treated with LPS for 24 hours with or without dihydroartemisinin combined with PI3K/Akt activator 740 Y-P or NF-κB activator phorbol myristate acetate. Western blotting was used to test the activation of PI3K/AKT and NF-κB. Dihydroartemisinin significantly ameliorated body weight loss, shortened colon length, and increased DAI in DSS-induced colitis. Meanwhile, histological damage was improved and was accompanied by decreased expression and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Moreover, DSS-induced elevation of phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, IKKα, IκBα, and NF-κB (p65) was remarkably blunted by dihydroartemisinin both in vivo and in vitro, indicating an inhibitive property on the PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways. Furthermore, administration of 740 Y-P or PMA significantly blocked protective activity of dihydroartemisinin against colitis in vitro. In conclusion, dihydroartemisinin can attenuate DSS-induced colitis, and its anticolitis effect might be mediated via the PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways. DHA might serve as a promising drug for patients with ulcerative colitis.

Identification of differentially expressed genes, associated functional terms pathways, and candidate diagnostic biomarkers in inflammatory bowel diseases by bioinformatics analysis

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), are chronic inflammatory disorders caused by genetic influences, the immune system and environmental factors. However, the underlying pathogenesis of IBDs and the pivotal molecular interactions remain to be fully elucidated. The aim of the present study was to identify genetic signatures in patients with IBDs and elucidate the potential molecular mechanisms underlying IBD subtypes. The gene expression profiles of the GSE75214 datasets were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in UC and CD patients compared with controls using the GEO2R tool. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses of DEGs were performed using DAVID. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks of the DEGs were constructed using Cytoscape software. Subsequently, significant modules were selected and the hub genes were identified. In the GO and KEGG pathway analysis, the top enriched pathways in UC and CD included Staphylococcus aureus infection, rheumatoid arthritis, complement and coagulation cascades, PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and osteoclast differentiation. In addition, the GO terms in the category biological process significantly enriched by these genes were inflammatory response, immune response, leukocyte migration, cell adhesion, response to molecules of bacterial origin and extracellular matrix (ECM) organization. However, several other biological processes (GO terms) and pathways (e.g., ‘chemotaxis’, ‘collagen catabolic process’ and ‘ECM-receptor interaction’) exhibited significant differences between the two subtypes of IBD. The top 10 hub genes were identified from the PPI network using respective DEGs. Of note, the hub genes G protein subunit gamma 11 (GNG11), G protein subunit beta 4 (GNB4), Angiotensinogen (AGT), Phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 3 (PIK3R3) and C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) are disease-specific and may be used as biomarkers for differentiating UC from CD. Furthermore, module analysis further confirmed that common significant pathways involved in the pathogenesis of IBD subtypes were associated with chemokine-induced inflammation, innate immunity, adapted immunity and infectious microbes. In conclusion, the present study identified DEGs, key target genes, functional pathways and enrichment analysis of IBDs, enhancing the understanding of the pathogenesis of IBDs and also advancing the clarification of the underlying molecular mechanisms of UC and CD. Furthermore, these results may provide potential molecular targets and diagnostic biomarkers for UC and CD.

Secondary metabolites (SMs) of Isaria cicadae and Isaria tenuipes

Both Isaria cicadae and Isaria tenuipes are important entomopathogenic fungi used in health foods and traditional herbal medicines in East Asia. However, the safety concerns for both fungal species have been attracting significant attention. Thus, surveying their secondary metabolites (SMs) will be beneficial to improving the safety of their fungal products. In the case of I. cicadae, its SMs mainly include nucleosides, amino acids, beauvericins, myriocin, and oosporein. In contrast, trichothecene derivatives, isariotins, cyclopenta benzopyrans and PKs, are found in the case of I. tenuipes. Among them, beauvericins, myriocin, oosporein and many trichothecene derivatives are toxic compounds. The toxicity and side effects of the fungal products may be related to these SMs. Thus, to ensure the safety of fungal products, the residues standards of SMs need to be reported. Furthermore, methods for the detection of their SMs and biological identification of their strains must be considered. This review gives new insight into the secondary metabolites of medical and edible fungi.

A Review on the Synthesis and Bioactivity Aspects of Beauvericin, a Fusarium Mycotoxin

Beauvericin (BEA) is an emerging Fusarium mycotoxin that contaminates food and feeds globally. BEA biosynthesis is rapidly catalyzed by BEA synthetase through a nonribosomal, thiol-templated mechanism. This mycotoxin has cytotoxicity and is capable of increasing oxidative stress to induce cell apoptosis. Recently, large evidence further shows that this mycotoxin has a variety of biological activities and is being considered a potential candidate for medicinal and pesticide research. It is noteworthy that BEA is a potential anticancer agent since it can increase the intracellular Ca²⁺ levels and induce the cancer cell death through oxidative stress and apoptosis. BEA has exhibited effective antibacterial activities against both pathogenic Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Importantly, BEA exhibits an effective capacity to inhibit the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 integrase. Moreover, BEA can simultaneously target drug resistance and morphogenesis which provides a promising strategy to combat life-threatening fungal infections. Thus, in this review, the synthesis and the biological activities of BEA, as well as, the underlying mechanisms, are fully analyzed. The risk assessment of BEA in food and feed are also discussed. We hope this review will help to further understand the biological activities of BEA and cast some new light on drug discovery.

Beauvericin inhibits melanogenesis by regulating cAMP/PKA/CREB and LXR-α/p38 MAPK-mediated pathways

Melanogenesis is the process of production of melanin pigments that are responsible for the colors of skin, eye, and hair and provide protection from ultraviolet radiation. However, excessive levels of melanin formation cause hyperpigmentation disorders such as freckles, melasma, and age spots. Liver X receptors (LXR) are nuclear oxysterol receptors belonging to the family of ligand-activated transcription factors and physiological regulators of lipid and cholesterol metabolism. In the skin, activation of LXRs stimulates differentiation of keratinocytes and augments lipid synthesis in sebocytes. However, the function of LXRs in melanogenesis has not been clearly elucidated. In addition, although beauvericin, a well-known mycotoxin primarily isolated from several fungi, has various biological properties, its involvement in melanogenesis has not been reported. Therefore, in this study, we examined the effects of beauvericin on melanogenesis and its molecular mechanisms. Beauvericin decreased melanin content and tyrosinase activity without any cytotoxicity. Beauvericin also reduced protein levels of MITF, tyrosinase, TRP1, and TRP2. In addition, beauvericin suppressed cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling and upregulated expression of LXR-α, resulting in the suppression of p38 MAPK. Our results indicate that beauvericin attenuates melanogenesis by regulating both cAMP/PKA/CREB and LXR-α/p38 MAPK pathways, consequently leading to a reduction of melanin levels.

Adoptive transfer of dendritic cells expressing CD11c reduces the immunological response associated with experimental colitis in BALB/c mice

INTRODUCTION

In addition to conventional therapies, several new strategies have been proposed for modulating autoimmune diseases, including the adoptive transfer of immunological cells. In this context, dendritic cells (DCs) appear to be one of the most promising treatments for autoimmune disorders. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of adoptive transfer of DCs obtained from both naïve and ovalbumin (OVA)-tolerant mice on the severity of TNBS induced colitis and analyze the eventual protective mechanisms.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To induce oral tolerance, BALB/c mice were fed 4mg/mL OVA solution for seven consecutive days. Spleen DCs were isolated from tolerant (tDC) and naïve (nDC) mice, and then adoptively transferred to syngeneic mice. Three days later, colitis was induced in DC treated mice by intrarectal instillation of 100μg2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) dissolved in 50% ethanol. Control subjects received only intrarectal instillation of either TNBS solution or a vehicle. Five days later, mice from all groups were euthanized and examined for physiological and immunological parameters. Regarding the phenotype, we observed that the frequencies of CD11+ MHC II+ and CD11+ MHCII+ CD86+ cells were significantly lower in DCs isolated from tolerant mice than in those from naive mice. However, pretreatment with both types of DCs was able to significantly reduce clinical signs of colitis such as diarrhea, rectal prolapse, bleeding, and cachexia, although only treatment with tDCs was able to prevent weight loss from instillation of TNBS. In vitro proliferation of spleen cells from mice treated with either type of DCs was significantly lower than that observed in splenic cell cultures of naïve mice. Although no significant difference was observed in the frequencies of Treg cells in the experimental groups, the frequency of Th17+CD4+cellsand the secretion of IL-17 were more reduced in the cultures of spleen cells from mice treated with either type of DCs. The levels of IL-9 and IFN-γ were lower in supernatants of cells from mice treated with nDCs.

CONCLUSION

The results allow us to conclude that the adoptive transfer of cells expressing CD11c is able to reduce the clinical and immunological signs of drug-induced colitis. Adoptive transfer of CD11c+DC isolated from both naive and tolerant mice altered the proliferative and T cell responses. To the best of our knowledge, there is no previously published data showing the protective effects of DCs from naïve or tolerant mice in the treatment of colitis.

Species of the Metarhizium anisopliae complex with diverse ecological niches display different susceptibilities to antifungal agents

Species of the Metarhizium anisopliae complex are globally ubiquitous soil-inhabiting and predominantly insect-pathogenic fungi. The Metarhizium genus contains species ranging from specialists, such as Metarhizium acridum that only infects acridids, to generalists, such as M. anisopliae, Metarhizium brunneum, and Metarhizium robertsii that infect a broad range of insects and can also colonize plant roots. There is little information available about the susceptibility of Metarhizium species to clinical and non-clinical antifungal agents. We determined the susceptibility of 16 isolates comprising four Metarhizium species with different ecological niches to seven clinical (amphotericin B, ciclopirox olamine, fluconazole, griseofulvin, itraconazole, tebinafine, and voriconazole) and one non-clinical (benomyl) antifungal agents. All isolates of the specialist M. acridum were clearly more susceptible to most antifungals than the isolates of the generalists M. anisopliae sensu lato, M. brunneum, and M. robertsii. All isolates of M. anisopliae, M. brunneum, and M. robertsii were resistant to fluconazole and some were also resistant to amphotericin B. The marked differences in susceptibility between the specialist M. acridum and the generalist Metarhizium species suggest that this characteristic is associated with their different ecological niches, and may assist in devising rational antifungal treatments for the rare cases of mycoses caused by Metarhizium species.

Transcriptomic study of the toxic mechanism triggered by beauvericin in Jurkat cells

Beauvericin (BEA), an ionophoric cyclic hexadepsipeptide mycotoxin, is able to increase oxidative stress by altering membrane ion permeability and uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. A toxicogenomic study was performed to investigate gene expression changes triggered by BEA exposure (1.5, 3 and 5 μM; 24 h) in Jurkat cells through RNA-sequencing and differential gene expression analysis. Perturbed gene expression was observed in a concentration dependent manner, with 43 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) overlapped in the three studied concentrations. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed several biological processes related to electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation, and cellular respiration significantly altered. Molecular functions linked to mitochondrial respiratory chain and oxidoreductase activity were over-represented (q-value < 0.01). Pathway analysis revealed oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain as the most significantly altered pathways in all studied doses (z-score > 1.96; adj p-value < 0.05). 77 genes involved in the respiratory chain were significantly down-regulated at least at one dose. Moreover, 21 genes related to apoptosis and programmed cell death, and 12 genes related to caspase activity were significantly altered, mainly affecting initiator caspases 8, 9 and 10. The results demonstrated BEA-induced mitochondrial damage affecting the respiratory chain, and pointing to apoptosis through the caspase cascade in human lymphoblastic T cells.

The Natural Fungal Metabolite Beauvericin Exerts Anticancer Activity In Vivo: A Pre-Clinical Pilot Study

Recently, in vitro anti-cancer properties of beauvericin, a fungal metabolite were shown in various cancer cell lines. In this study, we assessed the specificity of this effect by comparing beauvericin cytotoxicity in malignant versus non-malignant cells. Moreover, we tested in vivo anticancer effects of beauvericin by treating BALB/c and CB-17/SCID mice bearing murine CT-26 or human KB-3-1-grafted tumors, respectively. Tumor size and weight were measured and histological sections were evaluated by Ki-67 and H/E staining as well as TdT-mediated-dUTP-nick-end (TUNEL) labeling. Beauvericin levels were determined in various tissues and body fluids by LC-MS/MS. In addition to a more pronounced activity against malignant cells, we detected decreased tumor volumes and weights in beauvericin-treated mice compared to controls in both the allo- and the xenograft model without any adverse effects. No significant differences were detected concerning percentages of proliferating and mitotic cells in tumor sections from treated and untreated mice. However, a significant increase of necrotic areas within whole tumor sections of beauvericin-treated mice was found in both models corresponding to an enhanced number of TUNEL-positive, i.e., apoptotic, cells. Furthermore, moderate beauvericin accumulation was detected in tumor tissues. In conclusion, we suggest beauvericin as a promising novel natural compound for anticancer therapy.

Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics

Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.

Beauvericin, a cyclic peptide, inhibits inflammatory responses in macrophages by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway

Beauvericin (BEA), a cyclic hexadepsipeptide produced by the fungus Beauveria bassiana, is known to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial actions. However, how BEA suppresses macrophage-induced inflammatory responses has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we explored the anti-inflammatory properties of BEA and the underlying molecular mechanisms using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells. Levels of nitric oxide (NO), mRNA levels of transcription factors and the inflammatory genes inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and interleukin (IL)-1, and protein levels of activated intracellular signaling molecules were determined by Griess assay, semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), luciferase reporter gene assay, and immunoblotting analysis. BEA dose-dependently blocked the production of NO in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells without inducing cell cytotoxicity. BEA also prevented LPS-triggered morphological changes. This compound significantly inhibited nuclear translocation of the NF-κB subunits p65 and p50. Luciferase reporter gene assays demonstrated that BEA suppresses MyD88-dependent NF-κB activation. By analyzing upstream signaling events for NF-κB activation and overexpressing Src and Syk, these two enzymes were revealed to be targets of BEA. Together, these results suggest that BEA suppresses NF-κB-dependent inflammatory responses by suppressing both Src and Syk.

Oral Tolerance Induced by OVA Intake Ameliorates TNBS-Induced Colitis in Mice

INTRODUCTION

Literature data have shown that the consumption of dietary proteins may cause modulatory effects on the host immune system, process denominated oral tolerance by bystander suppression. It has been shown that the bystander suppression induced by dietary proteins can improve inflammatory diseases such as experimental arthritis. Here, we evaluated the effects of oral tolerance induced by ingestion of ovalbumin (OVA) on TNBS-induced colitis in mice, an experimental model for human Crohn's disease.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Colitis was induced in BALB/c mice by instilling a single dose of TNBS (100 mg/kg) in ethanol into the colon. Tolerized mice received OVA (4mg/mL) dissolved in the drinking water for seven consecutive days, prior to or concomitantly with the intrarectal instillation. Control groups received protein-free water and ethanol by intrarectal route. We observed that either the prior or concomitant induction of oral tolerance were able to reduce the severity of colitis as noted by recovery of body weight gain, improvement of clinical signs and reduction of histological abnormalities. The in vitro proliferation of spleen cells from tolerant colitic mice was lower than that of control mice, the same as the frequencies of CD4+ T cells secreting IL-17 and IFN-γ. The frequencies of regulatory T cells and T cells secreting IL-10 have increased significantly in mice orally treated with OVA. The levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-17A, TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ) were lower in supernatants of cells from tolerant colitic mice, whereas IL-10 levels were higher.

CONCLUSION

Our data show that the modulation of immune response induced by oral tolerance reduces the severity of experimental colitis. Such modulation may be partially attributed to the increase of Treg cells and reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines in peripheral lymphoid organs of tolerant mice by bystander suppression.

Deoxyschizandrin suppresses dss-induced ulcerative colitis in mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Deoxyschizandrin as one of the most important component of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill plays an immunomodulatory role in a variety of diseases, yet its role in ulcerative colitis remains to be elucidated. We aimed to investigate the role of deoxyschizandrin in DSS-induced ulcerative colitis in mice.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In the present study, an inflammation model of cells was constructed to confirm the anti-inflammatory effect of deoxyschizandrin. Then a mouse model with Dextran sulfate sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis was constructed, and the effects of deoxyschizandrin on mouse colon inflammation, apoptosis, and CD4 T lymphocyte infiltration in ulcerative colitis were examined.

RESULT

Deoxyschizandrin could improve the symptoms of ulcerative colitis, determined by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and histopathological scores. Moreover, deoxyschizandrin reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines, suppressed CD4 T cell infiltration, and effectively inhibited apoptosis in the colon of DSS-induced ulcerative colitis mice.

CONCLUSION

In summary, deoxyschizandrin can effectively rescue the symptoms of DSS-induced ulcerative colitis in mice by inhibiting inflammation. T cell infiltration and apoptosis in the colon, suggesting that deoxyschizandrin could be a potential drug in treating ulcerative colitis.

Indirubin ameliorates dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice through the inhibition of inflammation and the induction of Foxp3-expressing regulatory T cells

Indirubin, an active ingredient of a traditional Chinese medicine prescription named Danggui Longhui Wan, has been reported to exhibit abroad anti-cancer and anti-inflammation activities. However, the effect of indirubin on ulcerative colitis (UC) has not been addressed. Here, we investigated the therapeutic efficacy of indirubin on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced UC in mice and explored its underlying mechanisms. UC model was induced in BALB/c mice by administrating with 3% DSS in drinking water for 7days. Subsequently, indirubin treatment (10mg/kg) for 7days obviously inhibited the loss of body weight, reversed the elevation of disease activity index (DAI), alleviated crypt distortion and mucosal injury, and reduced inflammatory cell infiltration in the colon mucosa, thereby ameliorating DSS-induced UC. Mechanically, the levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-2 as well as myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in colon tissues were decreased significantly, while the levels of IL-4 and IL-10 were increased remarkably by indirubin treatment. Moreover, indirubin administration effectively suppressed CD4(+) T cell infiltration in the colon of DSS-induced UC mice and promoted the generation of Foxp3-expressing regulatory T cells. Additionally, further studies showed that indirubin obviously inhibited DSS-induced activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling. These results reveal that the significant anti-UC effect of indirubin may be attributable to its inhibition of inflammatory responses and promotion of Foxp3(+) T cells. Our studies provide the first evidence for the anti-UC effect of indirubin as well as the related molecular mechanisms and suggest a promising candidate drug for UC therapy.

Human skin permeation of emerging mycotoxins (beauvericin and enniatins)

Currently, dermal exposure data of cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins are completely absent. There is a lack of understanding about the local skin and systemic kinetics and effects, despite their widespread skin contact and intrinsic hazard. Therefore, we provide a quantitative characterisation of their dermal kinetics. The emerging mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) were used as model compounds and their transdermal kinetics were quantitatively evaluated, using intact and damaged human skin in an in vitro Franz diffusion cell set-up and ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-MS analytics. We demonstrated that all investigated mycotoxins are able to penetrate through the skin. ENN B showed the highest permeation (kp,v=9.44 × 10(-6) cm/h), whereas BEA showed the lowest (kp,v=2.35 × 10(-6) cm/h) and the other ENNs ranging in between. Combining these values with experimentally determined solubility data, Jmax values ranging from 0.02 to 0.35 μg/(cm(2) h) for intact skin and from 0.07 to 1.11 μg/(cm(2) h) for damaged skin were obtained. These were used to determine the daily dermal exposure (DDE) in a worst-case scenario. On the other hand, DDE's for a typical occupational scenario were calculated based on real-life mycotoxin concentrations for the industrial exposure of food-related workers. In the latter case, for contact with intact human skin, DDE's up to 0.0870 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN A were calculated, whereas for impaired skin barrier this can even rise up to 0.3209 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN B1. This knowledge is needed for the risk assessment after skin exposure of contaminated food, feed, indoor surfaces and airborne particles with mycotoxins.

Risks of Mycotoxins from Mycoinsecticides to Humans

There are more than thirty mycotoxins produced by fungal entomopathogens. Totally, they belong to two classes, NRP and PK mycotoxins. Most of mycotoxins have not been paid sufficient attention yet. Generally, mycotoxins do not exist in mycoinsecticide and might not be released to environments unless entomogenous fungus proliferates and produces mycotoxins in host insects or probably in plants. Some mycotoxins, destruxins as an example, are decomposed in host insects before they, with the insect's cadavers together, are released to environments. Many species of fungal entomopathogens have the endophytic characteristics. But we do not know if fungal entomopathogens produce mycotoxins in plants and release them to environments. On the contrary, the same mycotoxins produced by phytopathogens such as Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. have been paid enough concerns. In conclusion, mycotoxins from mycoinsecticides have limited ways to enter environments. The risks of mycotoxins from mycoinsecticides contaminating foods are controllable.

PI3K/AKT/PTEN pathway as a target for Crohn's disease therapy (Review)

The pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn's disease, is a subject of increasing interest. Loss-of-function mutations in nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) are strong genetic factors linked to Crohn's disease, which eventually leads to an excessive mucosal inflammatory response directed against components of normal gut microbiota. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in inflammation processes, as well as in transduction of signals from receptors for several cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). ROS activate nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) via IκB kinase (IKK) through the PI3K/AKT/PTEN pathway. Therefore, this pathway is recognized to play a key role in Crohn's disease. Loss of function has been demonstrated to occur as an early event in a wide variety of diseases. Given this prevalent involvement in a number of diseases, the molecular development that modulates this pathway has been the subject of several studies. In addition, it has been the focus of extensive research and drug discovery activities. A better understanding of the molecular assemblies may reveal novel targets for the therapeutic development against Crohn's disease.

Cyclodepsipeptides: a rich source of biologically active compounds for drug research

Faced with the need to find new drugs for all kinds of diseases, science sees that Nature offers numerous classes of compounds showing an impressively high biological potential. Among those are the cyclodepsipeptides, hybrid structures composed of amino and hydroxy acids. In the past decades numerous cyclodepsipeptides have been isolated and their potential as drugs has been studied extensively. For several cyclodepsipeptides total syntheses both in solution and on solid-phase have been established, allowing the production of combinatorial libraries. In addition, the biosynthesis of specific cyclodepsipeptides has been elucidated and used for the chemoenzymatic preparation of nonnatural analogues. This review summarizes the recent literature on cyclic tetra- to decadepsipeptides, composed exclusively of α-amino- and α-hydroxy acids.

Targeting T cell immunometabolism for cancer immunotherapy; understanding the impact of the tumor microenvironment

The immune system has a key role to play in controlling cancer initiation and progression. T cell activation, which is central to anti-tumor immune responses, coincides with changes in cellular metabolism. Naïve T cells predominantly require an ATP generating metabolic profile, whereas proliferating effector T cells require anabolic metabolic profiles that promote rapid growth and proliferation. Furthermore, specific T cell subsets require distinct energetic and biosynthetic pathways to match their functional requirements. The often hostile tumor microenvironment can affect T cell immune responses by altering the resulting cellular metabolism. Tailoring immune responses by manipulating cellular metabolic pathways may provide an exciting new option for cancer immunotherapy. T cell responses might also be skewed via metabolic manipulation to treat the complications of obesity-associated inflammation, which is a rapidly growing global health problem and a major risk factor for many malignancies. In this review, the diverse metabolic requirements of T cells in anti-tumor immunity are discussed, as well as the profound influence of the tumor microenvironment and the possible avenues for manipulation to enhance anti-tumor immunity.